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sury of Precious Qualities

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7 teaching. According to the Shravakayana, this refers to the Buddha Shakya- muni and the various moments and geographical locations in which he ex- pounded the Dharma to his disciples. According to the Mahayana, this refers to the Sambhogakaya Buddhas, such as Vairochana, expounding the teachings of the Great Vehicle in various buddhafields, in the eternal present beyond time, to a vast retinue of Bodhisattvas residing on the tenth ground. In the Mahayana context, the five excellences are also called the "five cenainties" (ngts pa Inga). agos 'brtl )'an lag bzhi. "The fourfold interrelated purpose refers to a subject (brjoa h),a), its immediate purpose (agos pa), its ultimate finality (nying agos), and the connection between these three factors ('brtl ba). These four elements are considered essential for meaningful communication to take place. In this context, the subject is the practice of the gradual paths of the three kinds of beings. The immediate purpose is to provide an understanding of the path of liberation through a study of the text. The ultimate objective is the prac- titioner's attainment of the final goal. The connection refers to the fact that the previous three elements must be consistent with each other." [YG I, 179] These are: realization of the ultimate nature, the vision of the yidam (and, possibly, the reception of authorization), and a knowledge of the five sciences. The possession of one of these qualifications authorizes a person to compose shastras, or commentaries. "Asanga's Yogacharabhumi-shastra says: The three qualities of Buddhist composi- tions are that they are meaningful, are conducive to practice, and lead away from suffering. The six defects of non-Buddhist writings are that they are meaningless, false, of purely academic impon, sophistical, misleading, and lacking in compassion." [YG I, 176] rtsis mgoyan lag Inga, five important headings: mazaa pa po, lunggang nas btus, ph)'ogs gang au gtogs, bsaus aon, agos chta. This is how treatises were traditionally ex- plained by the panditas of the ancient Indian university of Nalanda. Buddhist teachings speak of four types of birth: from the womb, from an egg, spontaneous generation from warmth and moisture, and miraculous manifestation. "Generally speaking, there are three types of human existence: 'merely human' (mi Ius tsam po pa), as described in the text; 'special human existence' (mi Ius kh)'aa par can), i.e., in which actions and attitudes oscillate between virtue and negativity; and 'precious human existence' (mi Ius rin po cht), as explained here." [YG I, 182] mi g.)'O ba'i las. Mipham Rinpoche defines unwavering action as: "A positive action, such as a profound state of absorption devoid of bodhichitta, which infallibly, or 'unwaveringly' produces rebirth in the form or formless realms. Other actions are not unwavering in the sense that their result may, depending 8 9 10 II 12 13

on circumstances, ripen in states that are not normally expected from the action in question." [KJ, 80J

14 Beings are described as superior or noble when they have progressed beyond the path of seeing, in other words, when they have realized the absence of self or ego. All beings who have not done so (including the gods of the desire, form, and formless realms) are described as ordinary. The four samadhis of the form realm are subdivided into different levels. There are three such divisions in the first, second, and third samadhis. All of these are inhabited by "ordinary" beings. The fourth samadhi also has three levels of ordinary beings. In addition, however, it possesses five pure levels on which superior beings are said to dwell. On the last of these levels or, according to some authorities, on a yet higher, ninth, level (i.e., the seventeenth or eighteenth of the subdivisions of the entire form realm) are to be found the Bodhisattvas who are on the brink of full attainment. This is the realm of Akanishta the Fair, the dimension in which the Bodhisattvas spend their last life before achieving buddhahood. The insensate gods belong to the form realm but are different from the other gods of that dimension in being without perception. They are said to be "located" in the vicinity of the Great Fruit, the third level of the fourth samadhi, which is the highest attainment possible to ordinary beings in the form realm. In the case of the formless gods, no locations, even subtle ones, are spoken of. Only the formless gods and insensate gods are said to lack the freedom to practice Dharma. This is not so in the case of the gods of the form and desire realms, since it is said that Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas may manifest there. "The absorption of the insensate and the formless gods and that of the cessation enjoyed by Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas are similar in that both are characterized by a halting of the sense consciousnesses in the alaya, the fundamental level of the mind. They are, however, different in that the ab- sorption of the insensate gods does not involve the cessation of the defiled emotional consciousness (n)'on yid), whereas the cessation of the Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas does. For this reason, ordinary beings can only enter the absorption of nonperception, while the absorption of cessation is the preserve of Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas, practitioners of the Hinayana. Moreover, non-Buddhist traditions mistakenly regard the formless absorp- tions as liberation and train in them as their spiritual path. The Shravakas and Praryekabuddhas enter the absorption of cessation for the sake of con- tentment during their present lifetime. Sublime Bodhisattvas, by contrast, may enter it as an expedient, simply as a means of training in concentration." [YG I, 188J 15 This traditional scheme of eight freedoms (aal ba brgyaa) and ten advantages (rang gzhan 'bJ,or b(u) is supplemented in the writings of Longchenpa by two further lists o f hindering factors (each containing eight items) which must be absent if human existence is to be considered truly precious. They are taken NOTES 441

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up and commented on by Patrul Rinpoche in The Woras of M), Perfect Teacher, pp. 30-31. First, there are eight obstructive circumstancts ('phral byung rk)'en gyi mi khom rnam pa brg)'aa) that prevent true practice of the Dharma. These are: great strength of the five negative emotions; great stupidity; the following of a false teacher; great indolence; strong obscurations arising from past negativity; a lack of independence; embracing Dharma for the sake of protection from worldly fears; and attempting to acquire wealth and prestige from a show of Dharma practice. Second, there are eight incompatible tendencies (ris chaa blo )'i mi khom rnam pa brg),aa). These are: being caught up in worldly activities; a lack of basic humanity; complacency with regard to the ills of samsara; a lack of faith in the teacher and the teachings; finding entertainment in what are negative actions; a lack of interest in spiritual values; the transgression of the pratimoksha vows (monastic ordination, etc.) and the bodhisattva vows; and the breach of tantric samaya. If any of these factors is present, the level of precious human existence has not been fully attained. 16 The body is said to be composed of the elements of earth, air, fire, and water, corresponding to the principles of solidity, movement, warmth, and liquidity. To these is added space, without which the others could not exist. When equilibrium between the elements is lost, a disease occurs. 17 bsoa nams cha mthun. This means virtuous actions performed in conjunction with a belief in the real existence of the self, both of persons and phenomena. Such actions are productive of happiness in samsara but do not lead beyond it. They are therefore to be contrasted with "virtuous action tending to libera- tion" (thar pa cha mthun), which produce liberation from samsara. 18 The thirty-two divine kings are the lesser gods of this heaven of which Indra is the ruler. 19 A full discussion of the primal substance prakriti and the doctrine of divine creation will be found in Khenchen Kunzang Pelden, The Nectar of Manjushri's Spuch, pp. 372-380. 20 "In the case of ordinary beings, it is hardly necessary to mention that igno- rance is the root of the three poisons. But it is said that until the 'defiled consciousness' is transmuted, the acquisition of higher qualities will also be hindered. By higher qualities is meant, for instance, the ability to visit pure buddhafields and the effortless arising of thought-transcending wisdom. And this is true even among those who are residing on the sublime Bodhisattva grounds." [DKRJ 21 See Patrul Rinpoche, The Woras ofmy Perfect Teacher, p. 73. 22 Vasubandhu, the author of the Abhiaharmakosha, is normally considered to have been a Sautrantika in his Hinayana period. However, his Abhiaharmakosha was composed from the Vaibhashika point of view. 23 In other words, "performed" (b.>'as) refers simply to the action as such;

"stored" (bsags) refers to intentionality, satisfaction, and so on, which ingrains the effect on the mindstream. H is Holiness the Dalai Lama says that the four permutations of the performed and stored aspects reveal whether the effect of an action will definitely be experienced. The first and third permutations indicate an action the effect of which is certain to be experienced. The other two permutations are not attended by the same degree of certainty. See Tht Dalai Lama at Harvard, p. 60.

24 The logic behind this is that the Three Jewels are the object of confession, whereby one may purify even the most heinous of negative actions. The gravity of reviling or repudiating the Three Jewels consists in the fact that one abandons the very object whereby purification is possible. 25 The three types of feeling are pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral. The three types of perception mentioned here are associated with the three realms (de- sire, form, and formless); they are: small, intermediate, and great. See appen- dix 4. 26 These are: to kill one's father, to kill one's mother, to kill an Arhat, to attack and injure a Buddha so as to draw blood, and to cause a schism in the Sangha. These actions are of immediate effect because they are so grave that their effect overrides any other karma, and at death the person concerned falls directly into hell without even passing through the bardo state. 27 All together, these five are: destroying a stupa, killing a Bodhisattva, killing a practitioner on the noble path, robbing the Sangha, and raping a female Arhat. 28 "In this context, mention is also made of sixteen grave actions and eight wrong actions: "Four gravely wrong actions (log pa'i lei ba): sitting above a learned person, accepting prostrations from a fully ordained monk, stealing the provisions of a meditator, and stealing the ritual implements of a mantrika. "Four gravely impairing actions (n)'ams pa'i lei ba): to swear coarsely by using the name of the Three Jewels, for ordained persons to act against shravaka discipline, for practitioners of the Mahayana to violate the precepts of the Bodhisattvas, and for practitioners of the Mantrayana to violate the samayas, or sacramental commitments. "Four gravely disrespectful actions (smad pa'i lei ba): out of ignorance to have contempt for the physical form of a Buddha, out of pride to have contempt for the qualities of learned people, out of jealousy to show con- tempt for what is truthfully said, and out ofpartiality to discriminate between religious schools. "Four gravely scornful actions (skur pa'i lei ba): cynically to condone wrong views, to condone the shedding of a Buddha's blood, arbitrarily to condemn one among equals and to make false and unfounded accusations. "Eight wrong actions (log pa brgyad): (I) to despise vinue; (2) to praise NOTES 443

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nonvirtue; (3) to upset a virtuous person; (4) to interrupt the meritorious actions of a faithful person; (5) to abandon one's teacher; (6) to abandon one's yidam deity; (7) to abandon one's spiritual kindred; and (8) to violate the sacred mandala (i.e., the sadhana practice)." [YG I, 276J 29 "The mere failure to commit the ten negative actions, without having a con- scious spirit of restraint, is considered indeterminate (in other words, karmi- cally insignificant). Positive behavior is defined as the mind's conscious intention to reject negative practices and to adopt their opposites. These are the active protection of life, the practice of generosity, the perfect observance of the vows, the speaking of the truth, the reconciliation of disputes, peaceful and disciplined speech, speaking what is consonant with Dharma, satisfaction with little, loving attitudes toward others, belief in the doctrine of karma, and so on." [YG I, 283J 30 The Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas practice all these six vinues but without the complete wisdom of emptiness and the skillful means of bodhichitta. For this reason, the term paramitas or "perfections," is not used. 31 A practitioner on the path ofjoining passes through four stages as the realiza- tion of the path of seeing approaches. These are: warmth, peak, acceptance, and supreme mundane level. Until "peak" is gained, the practitioner is still prone to negative action. This is discussed at length in chapter 6. 32 Excerpt taken from Yonten Gyamtso, YG I, 296. 33 Sadness (sk)'o ba) in this context is considered a positive quality. Its impor- tance lies in the fact that it gives rise to renunciation, the desire, indeed the decision, to leave samsara. 34 This well-known story, also recounted in Tht Words of My Ptrftcl Ttachtr, de- scribes the occasion when Arya Katyayana saw a man sitting with his child on his knee. He was in the act of eating some fish, and in order to chase away a dog that was gnawing at the leftovers, he threw a stone at it. Due to the clairvoyance gained as a side effect of his meditative practice, Katyayana per- ceived that the baby was the rebirth of the man's worst enemy. The man's dead parents had fallen into the lower realms but, due to karmic links, were still drawn to him in his present existence. Thus the fish that he was eating was the rebinh of his father, while the dog had been his mother-who in ignorance was gnawing at the bones of her former husband! 35 "And beings who give up and revile the Doctrine." [DKR] 36 "Fifty human years are equivalent to one day in the heaven of the Four Great Kings. Five hundred years in that state correspond to a single day in the Reviving Hell, and here beings live for five hundred of their own years. The life span of the different hells gradually increases until, in the Hell of Great Heat, it lasts for half an intermediate kalpa and in the Hell of Torment Unsurpassed an entire intermediate kalpa." [YG I, 311J

37 For examples of this last point, see Patrul Rinpoche, Tht Words of My Ptrjtct TtachtT, pp. 70ff.

38 Excerpt taken from YOnten Gyamtso, YG I, 335. 39 It is from the time when the sense organs develop that the fetus starts to experience discomfort. 40 "When the pain of illness manifests in the aggregate ofform, fuling experiences it, ptrctption cognizes it as suffering, conditioningfactors produce future suffering of the same kind, and consciousntss is aware of the entire process." [YG I, 343J 41 "The Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas know that all existents (the universe and creatures) are like the shimmering of a mirage, a flash of lightning, the fiery path of a torch whirled in the air. They are constantly fluctuating, evanescent, and painful by their nature. Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas un- derstand also that these very "sufferings" are unaccompanied by a self and thereby eradicate the ignorance of wrongly conceiving otherwise. They sever the stream of karma and emotion and reach the state that is beyond all suffering, inwardly relying on the wisdom that realizes no-self, which is itself the truth of path. The Suhrlltkha says: Birth is suffering, and the cause of this Is craving. The abolition of this cause Is freedom or cessation-gained By following the Eightfold Noble Path. "In the same way that people riding in a chariot progress to their destination, by recognizing (suffering), discarding (its origins), realizing (cessation), and implementing (the path), practitioners practice and gradually progress through the five paths of the Hinayana. This way of proceeding occurs also in the Mahayana, and it is vital to understand it. Vasubandhu advises us to bind our minds with the vows of Pratimoksha, to hear and study the general instructions and the special teachings on no-self, and to meditate on this until deep conviction is attained. To this end, we should destroy the twenty wrong views associated with identifying the perishable aggregates as the 'I,' ponder- ing well the sense of Nagarjuna's Suhrlltkha: Form is not the 'I,' the Lord has said, and 'I' Is not possessed of form. Within the 'I,' the form Does not inhere, and form is not the dwelling place of 'I.' The other aggregates, please understand, are likewise void. "Firmly convinced of this, the Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas follow the Eightfold Noble Path. This comprises Right View, a stainless wisdom free from the afflictions; Right Livelihood, the abandonment of all evil ways of making a living; Right Effort, the four genuine restraints; Right Mindfulness, which is not to forget the object of concentration and its accompanying attitudes, in other words, the four close mindfulnesses; Right Concentration, NOTES 445

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the four samadhis and so forth, the foundation of the Noble Path; Right Speech, the four positive verbal actions; Right Conduct, the repudiation of the three negative actions of the body; and Right Thought, virtuous states of mind such as benevolence.... "The attainment of liberation depends exclusively upon one's own efforts. In the Suhrlltkha, Nagarjuna says: Freedom thus depends upon yourself, No friend can help you to accomplish it. Work hard in learning, concentration, discipline, And in the four truths train yourself." [YG I, 358J 42 Nirvana with remainder occurs when cessation takes place in the course of the practitioner's life. The skandhas of that life (the remainder) continue until the karmic seeds that are the cause of its existence are exhausted. The Arhat then dies, at which point nirvana without remainder occurs. All karma is exhausted and the impure psychophysical continuum terminates. 43 See Khenchen Kunzang Pelden, Tht Ntctar ofManjushri's Spttch, p. 342. "(Arhats) do have a nonafflictive ignorance-as the Shravakas themselves admit-on account of which, the knowledge of objects is impeded through the effects of time and space. . . . Since they do not have a perfect realization of emptiness ... , their minds are still ... attached to ideas such as "Samsara is to be abandoned" and "Nirvana is to be sought." 44 Excerpt taken from Yonten Gyamtso, YG I, 362. 45 The principle of dependent arising (rttn 'brtl bcu gn)Iis), also referred to as the law of interdependence, is one of the most imponant and profound of the Buddha's teachings. It describes twelve factors, linked interdependently, in the form of a cycle that revolves without beginning or ending. The fact that ignorance is posited as the first link does not mean that it is a permanently existent first cause. It is, however, the main factor, together with craving and grasping. If this is eliminated, the entire cycle is interrupted. The twelve links of dependent arising do not imply causality in a strictly chronological se- quence. In the production of a plant, for instance, the principal factor is the seed, but many other conditions, such as soil, moisture, and warmth, must also coexist and be present. Likewise cenain links in the cycle must coincide (chronologically). There are many traditional ways of explaining this princi- ple, both from the standpoint of the Theravada, such as in Buddhaghosha's Visuddhimagga or Sammohavinodani, and also from the Mahayana perspective, such as Asanga's Abhidharmasamuccha)'a. This is only the bare outline of a pro- found and difficult subject. 46 In other words, Buddhism denies the existence of a Creator in the biblical sense, as well as that of the unmoved mover of Aristotelian philosophy. In fact, the belief in a creator god, or first cause, arises from an incorrect under- standing of the nature of phenomena. For a more extensive treatment of this

subject, see Khenchen Kunzang Pelden, Tht Ntctar of Manjushri's Spttch, pp. 372-380.

47 Mipham Rinpoche explains: "It is possible to conceive of the cycle of twelve links unfolding within the time period required for the completion ofa single action (bya ba razogs pa'i skaa c;g.) In the case of killing, for instance, it is through Ignoranct that one becomes involved in the action. Conaitioning Factors are the action itself. Consciousntss is the awareness in the moment of the action. Namt ana Form and the (six) Stnsts of that instant produce Contact with the weapon etc. Ftt/ing is the experience of one's own satisfaction and the suffering of the other. Craving is represented by the willful engagement in the satisfac- tion and suffering just mentioned. This leads to Grasping, i.e., an enthusiasm for similar events in the future. Btcoming refers to the aggregates of the entire instant of the action, and this leads to the Birth of the present and future aspects of the experience, which in turn passes through a period of transfor- mation (Aging) and conclusion (Dtath)." [KJ, 52-53] 48 See the remarks on Maudgalyayana and Kubja the Small in Khenchen Kun- zang Pelden, Tht Ntctar ofManjushri's Spttch, p. 341. 49 "Indeed, the entire range of teachings, from the vehicle of the Shravakas to those of the Natural Great Perfection, have one meaning only, that of depen- dent arising. And at all times, the meaning remains the same, the only differ- ence lying in the manner in which it is imparted and explained to beings." [DKRJ 50 "The Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas exhibit strong partiality in adopting the truths of path and cessation and in rejecting the truths of suffering and origin. While engaged in uprooting ignorance, the root of existence, they do not fully realize the nature of dependent arising. It is said in the Kash)'apa-paripriccha-sutra, 'The emptiness that they realize is like the hole left by a worm in a mustard seed: Thus the Hinayana is simply a suppon for the path of the Mahayana. The ultimate result transcends all discrimination, that is, adoption or rejection in respect of the karmic law of cause and effect, which is itself an imputation of beings of lesser capacity. The ultimate result transcends the mind, mental factors, and their objects, all of which characterize such imputation. It is a nirvana that does not abide in either extreme, whether of samsara or the peace of cessation. The principal goal to be attained is thus the absolute truth, the ultimate nature of phenomena. This result manifests when the self-knowing wisdom directly and fully understands the primordial "unbornness" of phe- nomena, phenomena artificially assened or reified as the four truths, and the twelvefold chain of dependent arising, in other words, when it realizes their ultimate nature that lies beyond existence. Self-knowing wisdom understands this in a manner that transcends the intellect, where all concepts of subject and object subside. In what way are phenomena nonexistent? Given that phenom- ena produced through interdependence have no absolute existence, suffering itself is also without ultimate existence. The MuLtmaahyamaka-karika says: 'How NOTES 447

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could there be a suffering that does not arise through interdependence? What is impermanent is said to be suffering. Suffering has no inherent existence' (xxiv, 21). Since an effect does not occur, there is no cause (for it). The Mula- rnadh).arnaka-karika (xxiv, 22) says: 'If suffering exists inherently, how could it be produced?' And it is illogical to attribute the possibility of cessation to what inherently exists. 'Cessation of an inherently existent suffering is absurd (xxiv, 23): Since things to be abandoned and their antidote cannot meet, there cannot be a path. It is said, 'If the past and future instants meet, the indivisible instant must have two parts. If these two parts are simultaneous, it follows that one kalpa and one instant become the same.' Even the four truths do not have inherent existence. It is said in the Lankavatara-sutra: The unborn is the only truth While 'Four truths' is the talk of mere children. For those abiding in the essence of enlightenment, Not one is found, why speak of four? Phenomena arising in interdependence are merely our mistaken perceptions, nothing more. Their nature is utterly pure (empty). Knowing this, it is a mistake to cling to phenomena, preferring some and rejecting others." [YG I, 376] 51 O f the "three purities," the first is the fact that the alms gift does not derive from wrong livelihood. The second is that the act of giving itself should be done openly without wrong intention. The third is that the donor is happy with the act and without regret. 52 This is a summary translation of the quotation. The sense of the Tibetan terms rna brtag, rna bslangs, rna bskul is difficult to interpret. For meat to be considered pure, three criteria are necessary: (I) the consumers must have seen that the animal in question was not killed specially for them; (2) they must have heard it from a trustworthy source that the animal was not slaughtered for food for their specific consumption; and (3) they must have no doubt that this is so. Subject to these conditions, one is allowed to eat meat. An- other, more stringent, oral tradition stipulates the following criteria. The consumer must: (I) see that the animal has died a natural death; (2) have it on trustworthy report that this is the case; or (3) have no suspicion that the animal was intentionally slaughtered. 53 According to a tradition going back to the Buddha himself, the seat of a forest hermit is made of kusha grass. 54 The historical duration of the Buddha's teaching is said to consist of four major periods. First there is the "period of fruit" immediately following the promulgation of the Doctrine by the Buddha, when people who practiced it attained realization with great speed. There then follows the "period of prac- tice," when people have to practice in order to gain the result. In the third "period of transmission," the Dharma is merely transmitted. At this time, only a few people practice it, and those who gain the result are extremely

rare. Finally, in the residual fourth "period of signs," the Dharma is main- tained only in its external signs.

55 Approach, accomplishment, and activation are different phases of the sadhana practice. See glossary. 56 There was once an old frog who lived in well. One day, he was visited by another frog who lived by the sea. The two frogs fell into conversation and began to compare their different dwelling places. Unable to comprehend that there could exist something more vast and grand than his humble well, which for him was the summit of excellence and comfort, the old frog was per- suaded to make the journey to see the ocean for himself. When he arrived there, the immensity of the sea terrified him so much that his head split open with shock! 57 "People belonging to the first category are disciples who are able to benefit themselves and others. The teacher should instruct them unreservedly. As for those belonging to the other categories, the teacher should use every possible skillful means to draw them onto the authentic path. And, even if the attempt fails, the teacher must continue to care for them lovingly, by means of prayers of aspiration, so that they might become disciples in the future, by virtue of their connection." [YG I, 426J 58 "Even though the teacher has no need or desire for offerings, you should offer him or her everything that you like most. It is said in the spy; mao, 'My kingdom and my body, my children, spouse and wealth, my best possessions that I cherish most, I offer to the holy one.' Limitless merit accrues from this, for it is the teacher who introduces you to the Dharmakaya of the Buddhas. The agongs pa 'aus pa says that offerings made for thousands of kalpas to thousands of Buddhas cannot match a thousandth part of a single drop of sandalwood oil offered for the anointing of a single pore of the teacher's body. If you are poor, a small offering made with a perfect and sincere attitude will equally perfect the accumulation of merit. It is important to make an offering proportionate with what you have." [YG I, 431J 59 "The reason that practice is considered the best kind of service is that it fulfills the true purpose of the teacher's presence. All teachers, from Buddha Shakyamuni onward, have expounded the Dharma for one reason only: that beings might be liberated. Failure to practice their teachings frustrates this end." [YG I, 433J 60 Infinite purity of phenomena refers to a vajrayana realization that appear- ances, sound, and thoughts are the mandalas of the deities, mantras, and wisdom. 61 "What we call 'time' is an imputation relating to the sequence of moments as perceived by every being individually and posited in relation to a point that is actually being experienced. This is labelled 'the present: and the past and future are the names given to preceding and subsequent events respec- NOTES 449

tively. Time in itself has no intrinsic existence of its own. Just as when dreaming, the mind arranges temporal sequences of different length, in the same way it assigns events to the past, present and future in the waking state. On the ultimate level, however, in the fundamental state of things, no phenomena terminate in the 'past,' no phenomena occur in the 'present' and no events supervene in the 'future.' To be 'learned in the three times' means to understand their 'equality.' With this in mind, one can then go on to posit the so-called 'inconceivable fourth time' in addition to the past, present and future. For one understands that the temporary and spatial categories are mere imputations and one integrates the ultimate reality, the equality of ev- erything." [KJ, 67]

62 One should perhaps be aware of a tendency to interpret refuge in a "theistic" sense, involving a reliance on a kind of supernatural power. The idea of taking refuge in the Buddha naturally involves an expectancy that the Buddha will bestow protection. He does indeed. But this is not some sort of ready- made liberation, handed down as a reward. The Buddha does not grant salva- tion. He explains suffering and the causes of suffering and expounds the path to freedom. It is for the disciples to follow. They in turn are liberated from suffering by understanding its nature and themselves uprooting its causes. Thus, rather than being an appeal to divine grace, the true taking of refuge is the commitment to undertake the path whereby the disciples liberate them- selves. 63 Obviously, the English word "faith" has connotations deriving from the Judeo-Christian tradition. It is used here to translate the Tibetan word dad pa, which certainly shares some of these connotations but extends beyond them, as is explained in the text. 64 'phags pa'i rigs. This is a reference to the Arya lineage. According to the Hina- yana, it indicates persons who have few desires; who are content with what they have in the way offood, clothing, and dwelling places; and who persevere in purifying negativities and gaining realization. This lineage (or proclivity) is so called because it brings beings to the level of the Aryas. 65 Shuracharya, otherwise known as Ashvaghosha, was an Indian Brahmin very much opposed to the Buddhadharma. He challenged the great pandita Arya- deva in debate, the stakes being that the loser would embrace the tradition of the winner. Ashvaghosha was summarily defeated and was so ashamed that he decided to commit suicide by throwing himself into the Ganges. Aryadeva discovered this and, sending some monks to capture him, had him locked up in the monastery library. Eventually, Ashvaghosha calmed down, and becom- ing a trifle bored, set about reading the texts. After a time, he was so im- pressed and moved by the expositions of the Dharma that he underwent a wholehearted conversion. In the course ofhis reading, he discovered a proph- ecy about himself, to the effect that he was to write a life story of the Buddha. Ashvaghosha was in fact an important poet in the history o f Sanskrit 450 NOTES

literature, and the Buaahacharita, a biography of the Buddha in verse, was com- posed by him.

66 It is easy for Western readers to interpret this kind of formulation as an "exhortation to martyrdom," which is in fact quite at odds with the Buddhist spirit. The notion of orthodoxy, in the sense of an ideology commanding notional assent, is of no importance in Buddhism, where all the emphasis is placed on inner conviction as the motivating force of genuine spiritual transformation. Thus, the meaning of irreversible faith is to be found not in expressions of belief adhered to doggedly in a confessional sense, but in an inner conviction that is so profound as to be ineradicable, irrespective of whatever verbal formulations might be wrung from unwilling lips. This point is best illustrated by the story, quoted in The Woras oj M), Perfect Teacher (pp. 185-186), of an Indian lay practitioner who was threatened with death if he did not repudiate his refuge in the Three Jewels. "I can only renounce taking refuge with my mouth. I am incapable of doing so with my heart." The man was executed and accepted death willingly, even though "dying for the faith" was not his principal objective. 67 In this context, the four truths must be understood not as general principles but as classes of phenomena. Thus, one speaks not of the truth of suffering but rather of true sufferings, true origins, and so on, referring thereby to the phenomenal world. In this particular instance, the focus is on the five aggre- gates. See appendix 3. 68 It is, however, enough to understand the points just explained, which apply mainly to the first two truths of suffering and origins. According to Khenpo Perna Sherab, some authorities maintain that these ten factors cannot truly militate against the truth of path, because the latter is the wisdom of no-self and therefore the very antidote to the ten factors. 69 "There are innumerable kinds of thought that veil the essential nature of the mind. All, however, can be grouped under two general headings: (I) miscon- ceptions superimposed on 'what is the case' (sgro btags) and (2) innate or coemergent thought patterns (/han skyes) of clinging to a supposed 'I' and 'mine.' The conceived objects (zhen )'ul) of both these ways of thinking (i.e., superimpositions and innate thought patterns) are the two 'selves': the 'self' of persons and the 'self' of phenomena. These two selves are apprehended and clung to by these two kinds of thought. All artificially imputed concep- tions of self are eliminated by the wisdom of the path of seeing, the direct understanding of reality. The conceptions of self that are the object of the innate thought patterns are eliminated by the wisdom of the path of medita- tion, which is the sustained training and familiarization of the mind in the wisdom gained on the path of seeing. The wisdom of the Mahayana paths of seeing and meditation destroys emotional obscurations such as avarice, as well as the cognitive obscurations, which are the notions of a truly existent subject, object, and action, together with their connected tendencies. This, NOTES 451

then, is how the qualities of elimination are perfected. Thus, the term spangs pa in the root verse may be interpreted as referring to both the superimposi- tions and the innate thought patterns that are eliminated. Alternatively, the spangs pa may be understood not as what is to be eliminated but as the elimina- tor, namely, wisdom. Just as the banishing of the miseries of samsara can be understood as the positive state of deliverance, liberation, or nirvana, in the same way, the wisdoms of seeing and meditation may be understood not merely as antidotes to their corresponding defects, but as the wisdom or freedom in which such defects have no place. It is therefore correct to inter- pret the root verse by saying that emotional and cognitive obscurations are destroyed by two kinds of wisdom." [YG I, 482]

70 Care should be taken with the word "innate," the translation of /han sk)'ts. It is used here to refer to contents, or rather proclivities, that are already present in the mind at binh and which are to be distinguished from the false imputa- tions or ideas that are freshly made or entertained in each new lifetime (under the influence of false tenet systems). Both artificial imputations (kwn brtags) and innate thought patterns (/han skyts) are kinds of emotional obscuration (n)Ion sgrib). Anificial imputations are relatively shallow. They arise conceptu- ally and are comparatively easy to remove. On the other hand, innate thought patterns are much stronger, being a conditioning from previous existences (an example would be an aggressive tendency already deep-rooted in the temperament of a small child). The cognitive obscurations (shts sgrib) also consist of anificial imputations and innate thought patterns, but in this con- text they are usually referred to as gross and subtle obscurations, respectively. The former are eliminated on the path of seeing, while the latter disappear only in the course of the path of meditation. 71 The Hinayana path of meditation consists of the progressive stages of the development of meditative absorption. Obviously, the samadhis of form and the formless absorptions can be cultivated before the (supramundane) path of seeing is reached. For they can be attained by non-Buddhist meditators, although in their case, since the wisdom ofemptiness (i.e., the path ofseeing) is absent, such accomplishments do not result in liberation from samsara. This is why it is said in the H inayana that practitioners may cultivate the higher absorptions while at the same time working toward the path of seeing and before they achieve this. Those who do this are said to be on the path of "leap over," the implication being that, when they attain the path of seeing, they leap over the stages of the path of meditation that they have already accomplished. Those on the path of "leap over" are either Once Returners or Nonreturners. Thus it can be said that the second and third Hinayana levels can be attained by the worldly path, while the first and founh are attained only by the transmundane path. 72 "This is the 'Path without obstacles.' " [DKRJ 73 "This is the 'Path of liberation.' " [DKRJ 452 NOTES

74 "This is the 'Path without obstacles.' " [DKR]

75 In the early phase of Buddhism in India, distinct communities had developed in culturally diverse regions. At the time of the king Ashoka there were four main traditions: Sarvastivada, Mahasanghika, Sthavira, and Sammitiya (see note 179). These further divided into eighteen schools, which were asserted as valid Dharma traditions by the council held under the king Kanishka's patronage. For a detailed treatment of the subject, see Tarthang Tulku, Light oj Liberation, C,)'stal Mirror, vol. 8. 76 The term "instant" may be understood in two senses. It may refer to the smallest unit of time (dus mtha'i skad cig) or to the period of time required for the accomplishment of a given action (bJ'a ba rdzogs pa'i skad cig). The latter is necessarily variable. It may correspond to something as brief as a finger- snap, or it may encompass the period extending from the first generation of bodhichitta to the full attainment of buddhahood. In the grub mtha' mdzod, the omniscient Longchenpa says that the four truths are realized in sixteen in- stants of the second kind. In other words, they are realized in the course of sixteen successive occasions (of varying length). In this context, "instants of discernment" (so sor rtog pa'i skad cig) are the instants necessary for the cognition of each of the sixteen aspects of the four truths. The "instant of absolute reality" (de kho na n)lid k)'i skad cig) is the moment in which absolute reality is realized. 77 "Nagarjuna's tradition states that the system of sixteen instants is used to describe how wisdom arises in meditation, while Asanga's tradition uses it to show how incontrovertible knowledge arises in the post-meditation period. These two ways do not in fact contradict each other; both should be upheld by the followers of the Mahayana." [DKR] 78 "As reported by practitioners of meditation." [DKR] 79 This potential is, of course, innate. It is on the basis of innate thought tenden- cies that false imputations can develop. Indeed, there is something predictable about false tenet systems in the sense that they exhibit certain common fea- tures, which are in tum coordinated with the inveterate self-clinging of the ordinary mind. 80 "Namely, the assertions of mistaken tenets regarding the causal relationships that underpin samsara and nirvana." [DKR] 81 "All other thoughts (i.e., other than the tenets of mistaken systems) derive from the misapprehension of sense data." [DKR] 82 "There are ten meanings of the word 'dharma' (chos). Six apply to phenomena; four apply to the sacred Doctrine. The first six are: (I) phenomenon or knowledge object; (2) mental object; (3) life span; (4) future time; (5) cer- tainty; and (6) religion (religious tradition). The four that apply to the sacred tradition are: (I) scriptures, or the Dharma of transmission; (2) meritorious NOTES 453

action or skillful means, such as generosity; (3) the path or wisdom of under- standing emptiness; and (4) nirvana, or freedom of all that is to be aban- doned." [YG I, 503J

83 "One should know that the truth of cessation has three aspects: it cannot be conceived by the conventional mind; it is the arresting of karma and emo- tions; and it is the absence of mistaken mental processes. The truth of path also has three aspects: it is free from obscurations; it is clear wisdom; and it acts as a remedy for all opposing forces." [YG I, 50 4J 84 "Thetwelvebranches(gsungrabyanlagbeugnyis)ofthescripturesare: I. mdo sde: sutra, discourses on a single topic. 2. dbyangs bsn)'ad: poetic epitome or summaries in verse of teachings existing at greater length in prose. 3. lung bstan: prophecies. 4. tshigs bead: discourses in verse. 5. ehed du brjod pa: teachings not requested by anyone but spoken intentionally by the Buddha in order to propagate the Dharma. 6. glmg gzhi: instructions given in the context of specific events (as often happened with the Vinaya). 7. 8. 9. 10. II. rtogs brjod: life stories of certain contemporaries of the Buddha. de Ita bu "'ung ba: historical accounts. sk)'es rabs: previous lives of the Buddha. shin tu rgyas pa: long expositions of the vast and profound teachings. rmad byung: extraordinary unprecedented expositions of the profound teachings. 12. gtan dbab: topics of specific knowledge that clinch the meaning of all the Vinaya and the sutras; the classification of samsaric phenomena, such as aggregates, dhatus, ayatanas; the outline of the phenomena of the path: grounds and paths of realization, concentrations; and the enumeration of the phenomena of the result: kayas, wisdoms, etc." [YG I, 50 5J 85 "The presentation of the four pitakas is asserted also by Aryadeva, Long- chenpa, Terdag Lingpa, and others. Some consider that this collection of the Mantrayana is included in the Abhidharma." [YG I, 50 7J 86 It is for this reason that in the Buddhist tradition the greatest respect is paid to books and manuscripts. Books are never placed on the ground but always in a clean and elevated place. In the same spirit, practitioners take care not to step on texts or walk over them, and when necessary dispose of them by burning, ideally accompanying such actions with the recitation of mantra. 87 "Generally speaking, the Dharma of realization refers to the three trainings of the path. There is not a single Dharma of realization in the traditions of the sutras or the mantras that is not included in one of the three trainings. It is wrong to think that if one's view is high, one does not need discipline, or 454 NOTES

on the other hand that the practices of union and liberation of the Mantra- yana are in conflict with the discipline. It is also wrong to think that the phases of generation and perfection are different from the trainings in con- centration and wisdom. If one regards the three vehicles and the path of the Mantrayana as being in conflict, and if one does not know that all the realiza- tions of the grounds and paths are included within the three trainings, one is lost in ignorance." [YG I, 508J

88 The mandala of the three seats (gaan gsum tshang ba'i altJ'ii 'khor) is: (I) the aggregates and elements, which are the seat of the male and female dhyani Buddhas; (2) the sense organs and their objects, which are the seat of the male and female Bodhisattvas; and (3) the bodily members, which are the seat of the wrathful male and female deities. 89 See appendix 9. 90 These are called mthar gyis gnas pa'i sn)'oms Jug agu. These consist of the four samadhis of form and the four formless absorptions, and the absorption of cessation. 91 Excerpt taken from Yonten Gyamtso, YG I, 519-527. 92 See note 266. 93 "The various systems of the enumerations of the grounds of the resultant vehicle are simply ways of labeling the different aspects of the three kayas or the qualities of the Buddha. They do not imply progression as in the case of the expository vehicle of causality (i.e., the bodhisattva grounds on the paths of seeing and meditation)." [YG I, 52 7J 94 "Indeed, that which is commonly referred to as 'Dharma' is not some truly existent entity; it is merely the qualities of realization in the minds of individ- uals on the paths of learning and no more learning." [YG I, 528J 95 "The noble Shravakas rid themselves of the erroneous idea that the aggregates and other phenomena are permanent and discrete entities. They understand that they are momentary and mere gatherings ofelements. Ridding themselves of the personal self, which is nothing more than a merely conceived object (zhtn )'UO, they free themselves of the obscurations of the emotions. In addi- tion to this, the Pratyekabuddhas realize the emptiness of the percept, but not that of the perceiving consciousness. Noble Bodhisattvas understand that all phenomena included within samsara and nirvana are like space, primordi- ally beyond all conceptual constructions. They know that not even the names of these two conceived objects, namely, the two types of self (personal and phenomenal) exist. In this way, they have an unhindered capacity for dispel- ling the two types of obscurations." [YG I, 528J 96 Excerpt taken from YOnten Gyamtso, YG I, 529. 97 "I. On the (H inayana) path of joining, the practitioner definitively acquires NOTES 455

the character of Shravaka. This ground is therefore called the Ground of the Shravaka Character (rigs kyi sa).

"2. The stage of 'Candidates for the Degree of Stream Enterer' is called the Eighth Ground (brgyaa pa'i sa). (Note that this refers to the Eighth Ground of the Aryas.) "3. The stage of 'Stream Enterer Abiding by the Result' is called the Ground of Seeing (mthong ba'i sa), because the practitioner has for the first time penetrated the significance of the four truths. "4. The stage of 'Once Returner Abiding by the Result' is called the Ground of Fineness (srab pa'i sa), for the beings residing on it have abandoned every degree of desire except the three most subtle ones. "5. The stage of'Nonreturner Abiding by the Result' is the Ground Free from Desire ('aoa (hags aang bral ba'i sa), for the practitioner has abandoned all nine degrees of desire. "6. Arhats reside upon the Ground of Realization of the Work (byas pa rtogs pa'i sa), for all labors for the accomplishment of the goal have now been com- pleted. There arises the wisdom of knowing that the obscurations related to the three realms are exhausted and that samsaric birth is henceforth impossible. "7. Candidates for the levels of Once Returner, Nonreturner and arhatship abide on the Shravaka Ground (nyan thos kJ'i sa). "8. Finally, in addition to the above, the eight levels of candidate and abiders by the result, as attained on the Pratyekabuddha path, are counted as a single ground: the Ground of Pratyekabuddhas (rang sangs rgyas kyi sa)." [YG I, 532J 98 These are referred to as the "Outer Sangha." The "Inner Sangha" comprises the dakinis, dakas, and wisdom Dharma protectors. 99 "The Dharma of transmission has to be abandoned in the same way as a boat is left behind when the far shore is reached. All the compounded aspects of the truth of the path are changing and ultimately false, while the cessation as described in the Shravakayana is a state of extinction. Finally, the three types of Sangha still have certain obscurations to discard (and are thus not immune from fears). Thus the sole and ultimate refuge is buddhahood (i.e., our own buddhahood)." [YG I, 537] 100 "In addition to the Three Jewels as identified previously, the main deity of the mandala is considered as Buddha; the four or six classes of tantra, together with the generation and perfection-stage practices, are the Dharma; while the dakinis, dakas, and protectors living in the twenty-four sacred places, thirty- two lands, and eight charnel grounds are the Sangha." [YG I, 539] 101 "These five pathways are mentioned in the batn gnyis shing rta, Jigme Lingpa's autocommentary to the TrtasuIJ' oj Prtcious Qualitits, but I have not found them discussed anywhere else. According to the explanations I received from my own teachers, the path oj artam refers to the period after deep sleep when, in a 456 NOTES

state of deluded nonconceptual consciousness, various perceptions of places, mental states, and other beings follow each other in quick succession. The path of habitual tendencies refers to the instinctual traces left behind by actions that have already yielded their fully ripened effect. They linger behind, mani- festing as the recollection of places, mental states, and beings in any of the six realms, high or low, where one has once taken birth. The path ofkarma refers to the propelling positive, negative, or unwavering actions performed in the corporeal form one has assumed. The path of unetrtain jttlings refers to various types of suffering in the bardo of becoming, due to the six uncertain- ties. The path ofunetrtain tjjtcts ofcauses means that, though positive and negative actions are never wasted and always ripen into their respective results due to the infallibility of dependent arising, nevertheless, some variety may appear in their ripened effect, for the simple reason that they are compounded phe- nomena. For example, if an evildoer makes a proper confession or implements some other strong antidote, the full effect of the action committed will be attenuated. Conversely, a positive action (i.e., one that is conditioned by the impure view of inherent existence) may be overwhelmed by anger, with the result that its effect will not ripen." [YG I, 544J

102 This means that refuge is the basis of the path by means of which negativities will be successively purified. It does not mean the automatic and sudden removal of evil karma by the act of taking refuge. 10~ "Given that this is true, one might wonder whether the so-called seventy protectors and others of that kind should be admitted as protectors of the Dharma. It is incorrect to place one's trust in them without placing reliance also in the Three Jewels, or to consider them as superior to the Three Jewels. On the other hand, if one makes offerings to them as though to friends who help in the performance of spiritual activities, considering them as the agents of enlightened action, not only is there no fault, but it is highly beneficial." [YG I, 558J 104 "Just as the carcass of an elephant contains within it the precious bezoar, and the carcass of the musk deer contains the musk, even ordained people who have no discipline are on a higher level than those who have no vows. The reason for this is that their former merit (generated when they took their vows) will give a good result. In the future, they will attain the level of N onreturner in one of the three vehicles. This happens thanks to the past aspirations of the Buddha." [YG I, 560J 105 "At the moment of death, whatever habits one has acquired in the course of one's life will arise. To remember the Three Jewels at the time of death, even if one has done no other practice, is extremely important. It is said in the Samadhiraja-sutra: 'Constantly praise the Buddhas with pure thought, word, and deed. If you become used to this, you will see the Protector of the World, during the day and even at night. And when, one day, after illness and pain, NOTES 457

the suffering of death comes to you, your recollection of the Buddha will not weaken. The feelings of pain will not overwhelm it.' " [YG I, 563]

106 "Even if one does not abandon the Three Jewels, if in comparing them with non-Buddhist teachers and teachings one has some hesitations, or if one thinks that there is only a slight difference between them, this is very close to giving up the refuge." [YG I, 565] 107 go La'i rlung. According to traditional Buddhist cosmology, this is a belt of wind energy around Mount Meru which supports the celestial mansions of the sun and moon. 108 "The Chittamatra tradition speaks of the Shravakayana, Pratyekabuddhayana, and Bodhisattvayana as three final vehicles. It asserts that those who 1,' their type belong to the Hinayana are, as it were, 'predestined' to the definitive and irreversible attainment of the result of their path. Those, however, whose type is uncertain will first engage in the Hinayana and then enter the Mahayana. However, the Madhyamika tradition asserts that, though practitioners who belong to the Hinayana are temporarily alienated from the Mahayana, and though there are specific character types corresponding to each of the three vehicles, nevertheless all beings without exception will ultimately attain en- lightenment through the path of the Mahayana. Some beings are able to train in the Mahayana from the first because their attitude is vast and they are drawn to the teachings on emptiness. Others can enter the Mahayana after training in the Hinayana. Finally, there are those beings who will do so only after attaining the final result of their original path. The Chandrapradipa-sutra says: 'All beings without exception have the buddha-seed. There is no being who is an improper vessel for it.' " [YG II, 9] The "buddha-seed," or potential or essence of buddhahood, is a concept central to the Tathagatagarbha-sutras of the third turning of the Dharma wheel, Maitreya's Uttaratantra-shastra, as well as to Nagarjuna's Stotras of the second turning of the wheel. Just as butter is potentially present in milk, so too is buddhahood present in beings. The Gandavyuha-sutra says: "Children of the Conquerors! The seed of the Bodhisattva is the dharmadhatu, vast as space and naturally luminous. The Bodhisattvas who recognized this in the past, those who will recognize it in the future, and those who recognize it now, take birth in the family of the Buddhas." And the Uttaratantra-shastra says: "The luminous nature of the mind is unchanging like space." Commenting on this in his grub mtha' mdzod (pp. 161-162), omniscient Longchenpa says, "This naturally pure expanse is the absolute truth, self-arising wisdom. In its contaminated or veiled condition, it is referred to as 'lineage' (rigs), 'seed,' 'element' (khams), or 'tathagatagarbha or buddha-potential' (de bzhin gshegs pa'i snying po). When it is unveiled, it is called the 'fully enlightened mind' (b)'ang chub kyi sems) or 'Tathagata' (de bzhin gshegs pa)." The buddha nature of all beings is unchanging and free from defect. Not only is it untainted throughout the entire process of samsara, but it is also 458 NOTES

possessed of all qualities of wisdom, and these are inalienable from it, just as light is indissociable from the sun. For these qualities to manifest, the veils that obscure the buddha nature must be removed, just as the clouds have to be blown away for the sun to appear. It is possible for these veils to be removed because they lack intrinsic existence. They are by nature empty, "self-empty," or rang stong. Once they are dispelled, however, the ultimate reality, or buddha nature, will shine forth. This nature is replete with every quality of wisdom and is by nature free from every stain, from everything extrinsic to it. As such, it is empty of other, or gzhan stong. (Note: the stains are rang stong, a nonaffirming negative; the nature of the mind is gzhan stong, an affirming negative.) The fact that the mind is in its nature utterly immaculate implies that there is essentially no difference between Buddhas and ordinary beings. In the Buddhas, the mind subsists immaculate and unstained; in be- ings, the mind is clouded with adventitious veils. For further discussion about the buddha-potential, see Gyalwa Longchenpa's grub mtha' mdzod and S. K. Hookham, Tht Buddha Within.

109 On account of great compassion for all beings without exception, the prac- titioner escapes the extreme of nirvana. Owing to the wisdom of realizing the emptiness of all phenomena, the practitioner escapes the extreme of samsara. Authentic bodhichitta, the wisdom of emptiness endowed with the essence of compassion, is possessed only from the first bodhisattva ground onward. 110 "According to the master Buddhagupta, these four attitudes are called bound- less because their referent is the boundless aggregate of beings, because they bring forth the boundless accumulation of merit and wisdom, the boundless qualities of buddhahood, and the boundless wisdom of nonduality." [YG II, II] III "The Tibetan word btang sn)'oms has three possible meanings: a neutral feeling (tshor ba btang sn)'oms), the conditioning factor of evenness ('du b),td btang sn)'oms); and boundless impartiality (tshad mtd btang sn)'oms). In this context, the third sense is intended." [YG II, 20] 112 tshangs pa'i gnas bzhi, the four divine abidings or attitudes in which the great Brahma is said eternally to dwell. Ostensibly, they are the same as the four boundless attitudes just described, with the crucial difference that they are oriented toward the subject rather than the object. This gives rise to unwar- ranted distinctions made between beings according to one's own point of view rather than theirs. Thus the tendency is to love what is close and pleasing to oneself, to be compassionate but in a self-interested way, and so on. 113 They are beyond the four ontological extremes: it cannot be said that they exist, that they do not exist, that they both exist and do not exist, and that they neither exist nor do not exist. 114 "There are four conditions for the appearance of the four boundless attitudes: (I) the causal condition, namely, the tathagatagarbha (rlJ'u'i rk)'tn); (2) the NOTES 459

460 NOTES

dominant condition, namely, the spiritual friend who teaches the four bound- less attitudes (bdag po'i rk)'en); (3) the objective condition, which is the object of the meditator's focus (dmigs pa'i rk),tn); and (4) the immediately preceding condition, namely, the knowledge of the benefits of this meditation and the defects of the opposite (de ma thag pa'i r/ryen)." [YG 1, 27] 115 The two paths are identical in that they bring about the realization of "empti- ness endowed with the heart of compassion." The same can be said about the final result: the fruit of the Sutrayana and Tantrayana paths is likewise one and the same. 116 Up to and including the seventh ground, the defiled emotional mind (nyon )'iJ) continues to manifest in the form of thoughts during the post-meditation experience of the Bodhisattva. It is, however, powerless to produce karma and is likened to a snake that has been cut in half, which continues to wriggle but is unable to attack. On the eighth ground, this is completely arrested. On the ninth ground, the five ordinary sense consciousnesses are completely arrested, but the mental consciousness is only panially so. As a result of this, the four perfect knowledges are realized. At the same time, the whole expanse of phenomenal appearance arises as a buddhafield. On the tenth ground, the mental consciousness is completely transformed into a kind of wisdom that is able to engage in all sense fields simultaneously. It is only at the end of the tenth ground, however, when the level of buddhahood is perfectly attained, that the last traces of duality are transcended. 117 "Bodhichitta associated with a keen aspiration toward enlightenment is lik- ened to the earth, for it is the foundation of all qualities. The bodhichitta associated with the wish to practice the six paramitas for others' sake is immutable like gold. Concomitant with a sublime disposition of the mind, it is like the waxing moon, because wholesome qualities develop from it. Associ- ated with active engagement in the paramitas, it is like fire, for it spreads like a forest blaze. Associated with the paramita of generosity, it is like a treasure, for it inexhaustibly satisfies all wishes. Associated with the paramita of disci- pline, it is like a mine ofJewels, a source of precious qualities. Associated with the paramita of patience, it is like the ocean, unaffected by assaults of fire and sword. Associated with the paramita of diligence, it is indestructible like a diamond. Associated with the paramita of concentration, it is like a mountain, unshaken by the gale of thoughts. Associated with the paramita of wisdom, it is like medicine, healing the ills of the emotions. The bodhichitta associated with the paramita of skillful means is like a spiritual teacher, a constant source of benefit for beings. Associated with the paramita of aspiration, it is like a magical gem that grants all wishes. Associated with the paramita of strength, it is like the sun that brings the harvest's increase. Associated with the paramita of primordial wisdom, it is like a song, teaching the doctrine in harmony with the disposition of each and every being. The bodhichitta connected with preternatural knowledge is like a king, with all activities beneath its sway.

Connected with the twofold accumulation, it is like a trtasurt houst containing numerous deposits of merit and wisdom. The bodhichitta associated with the thiny-seven factors leading to enlightenment is like a highway, trodden by the Buddhas of the past, present, and future. Associated with shamatha and vipashyana, it is the perfect convryanct, for it keeps to the center of the path and does not veer off into the two extremes. The bodhichitta associated with dharani and intelligence is like a spring, endlessly spilling fonh the words and meaning of the Doctrine and revealing them to others. Associated with the feast of Dharma, it is like music, an inspiration to beings. Associated with the one and only path, it is like a rivtr flowing naturally into the ocean of omni- science. Associated with the Dharmakaya, it is like a cloua, showing fonh the Buddha's twelve deeds, beginning with his dwelling in Tushita, the Joyous Realm. The above mentioned qualities of keen aspiration and so fonh are the suppons-emphasized at different moments of the path-of bodhi- chitta, the attitude of aiming at enlightenment for the sake of others."

[YG II, 59] The Buddha's twelve deeds are recorded in the Uttaratantra-shastra: The Knower of Worlds, the Great Compassionate One, sees the universe, and without stirring from the state of Dharmakaya, he appears in manifold Nirmanakaya forms. Every supreme Nirmanakaya displays twelve deeds per- ceptible to unenlightened beings, and this until the end of samsara. (I) He descends from Tushita; (2) enters the womb of his mother; (3) takes binh; (4) learns all sciences and arts; (5) takes delight in the company of his queens; (6) renounces worldly life; (7) practices austerities; (8) goes to Vajrasana; (9) vanquishes the hosts of maras; (10) achieves perfect enlightenment; (II) turns the wheel of Dharma; and (12) passes into nirvana. 118 "This is the general approach. More specifically, however, in beings whose general attitude militates against the bodhichitta training (for instance, per- sons who are incapable oftaking the vow to refrain from killing), bodhichitta cannot arise. Even if they go through the motions of receiving the vow, they accumulate nothing but downfalls." [YG II, 77] 119 This accounts for the importance attached to the making of offerings at the moment of taking the vow. When Atisha was at a cenain place in Tibet, he twice refused to give the bodhisattva vow because the offerings made were meager and insufficient. He said that because the offerings (in the sense of the preparation of the place and so on as described in the text) were poor, it would be difficult for bodhichitta to develop. At the third request, this time accompanied by more extensive preparations, he announced that the offerings were just sufficient and consented to give the vow. 120 ba 'bJ·ung, literally "deriving from the cow." This term refers to a substance prepared, in accordance with ancient Indian tradition, from various ingredi- ents derived from cows. It is not easy to come by since the ingredients must be taken only on the full moon and at the moment immediately after the cow has calved for the first time. Moreover, the animal in question must be red, without the slightest trace of white. NOTES 461

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121 rg)'al srid sna bawn. "The seven attributes of royalty, that is, the seven posses- sions of a Chakravartin, are: the precious golden wheel, the precious wish- fulfilling jewel, the precious queen, the precious minister, the precious ele- phant, the precious horse, and the precious general. These symbolize the seven sublime riches. Ashvaghosha says: 'The precious wheel, rolling day and night along the path of virtue, symbolizes faith. The precious queen, arrayed in beautiful ornaments and garlands, symbolizes discipline. The precious minister symbolizes generosity that brings forth merit and wisdom on a vast scale. The precious general symbolizes learning that vanquishes the enemies of wrong thoughts. The supreme horse symbolizes the sense of shame which buries the defiled emotions in egolessness. The mighty elephant symbolizes consideration of others, discarding all incorrect conduct. The precious jewel symbolizes aspirations for oneself and others. These constitute sublime riches endowed with limitless excellence. All other kinds of wealth bring forth suf- fering.' " [YGIl, 149] bkras shis rtags brgyaa. The eight auspicious symbols are the eight symbols refer- ring to eight aspects of the Buddha's Body, Speech, and Mind. They are: the everlasting knot, the lotus, the canopy, the conch, the wheel, the banner, the vase, and the golden fishes. razas brgyaa. The eight substances that were offered to the Buddha after his enlightenment. They are: white mustard, curd, a mirror, a white conch shell turning in a clockwise direction, bezoar, orange-colored powder, durwa grass, and kusha grass. "Generosity and the other paramitas should be practiced in a way that is free from the following faults, namely, seven types of attachment: (I) attachment to objects, beginning with material possession and extending to wrong views; (2) procrastination; (~) self-satisfaction; (4) expectation of recompense; (5) expectation of karmic result; (6) dormant opposing factors (from avarice to distorted understanding); and (7) distraction through interest in the Hina- yana and belief in the true existence of object, subject, and action." [YG II, 218] "The four special qualities which define the six paramitas are: (I) the fact that the paramitas eliminate all relevant adverse factors; (2) they are combined with the wisdom that sees through the false notions of action, agent, and object; (~) they fulfill the desires and aspirations of others; and (4) they lead beings to one of the three types of enlightenment according to their capacity (i.e., that of Shravakas, Pratyekabuddhas, or Bodhisattvas)." [YG II, 185] "These three pure elements mean that the intention is pure because the prac- tice is done in order to cultivate bodhichitta. The substance of offering is pure since it is untainted by wrongdoing, such as killing, trafficking, or some other sort of evil livelihood. The object of offering is also pure, for it is the Three Jewels themselves." [DKR] 122 12~ 124 125 126

127 stobs bzhi: sun 'bJ'in pa'i stobs, kun tu sp)'oa pa'i stobs, sor chua pa'i stobs, rUn kyi stobs. (See Patrul Rinpoche, The Woras ofMy Perfect Teacher, pp. 265, 266)

128 "Rejoicing is the antidote to jealousy. Jealousy is a feeling of displeasure at the prospect of another person's good qualities and actions, and a feeling of satisfaction when others are seen to act wrongly or break their discipline. Such thoughts, besides being utterly futile, are highly reprehensible. Jealous people are an embarrassment to holy beings and an object of contempt for the powers of good. However good a practitioner a jealous person might seem, he or she will not escape the lower realms." [YG II, 110] 129 "The symbolism of the Dharma wheel is explained in different ways. The Vaibhashikas consider that it represents the path of seeing. Others consider that it symbolizes the Eightfold Noble Path. According to the latter perspec- tive, Right Speech, Right Conduct, and Right Livelihood, which belong to the training in discipline, are the center of the wheel. Right View and Right Thought, which belong to the training of wisdom, are the sharp spokes of the wheel. The remaining three elements (Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration), belonging to the training of concentration, are the rim of the wheel. In the Mahayana, the wheel symbolizes the Dharma of transmission and realization, because, from the time of the perfect Buddha until the disciples of the present time, it has been passed down 'revolving constantly from mind to mind.' " [YG II, 114] 130 "An essential point concerning the dedication is that it should be expressed in the words of someone who has attained the sublime grounds (i.e., the path of seeing or above) so that the formula is thus composed of words of truth. It should be noted also that there is a difference between dedication prayers and prayers of aspiration. The former is focused on merit while the latter expresses a wish of some kind. Dedication necessarily includes aspiration, but the reverse is not always the case." [YG II, 119] 131 See appendix 4, p. 380. 132 The Mahayana level of Nonretumer should not be confused with the Nonre- turner level of the Shravakayana. Beings belonging to the latter category do not return to the desire realm. In a Mahayana context, it is understood that a Bodhisattva abiding on the grounds willingly returns to lead beings on the path. Bodhisattvas are referred to as N onreturners because their minds never revett to the samsaric state with all its negativities and limitations. 133 See The Wa)' of the Boahisattva, III, 23-24: Just as all the Buddhas of the past Have brought forth the awakened mind, And in the precepts of the Bodhisattvas Step by step abode and trained,

Likewise, for the benefit of beings,

I will bring to binh the awakened mind, And in those precepts, step-by-step, I will abide and train myself. 134 "According to Atisha, they are as follows: not to have a natural proclivity toward the Mahayana; to have little compassion; not to fear the miseries of samsara; to keep bad company; to dismiss buddhahood as something remote; to be overwhelmed by evil forces; to be the follower of a H inayana prac- titioner; to practice with the Hinayana attitude; to tum away from any being whatsoever; to have evil intentions toward and speak maliciously to a Bodhi- sattva; to fail to relinquish what militates against bodhichitta; to be lacking in knowledge, careful attention, and respect; and to be prey to many emo- tions." [YG II, 145J 135 "This does not mean that on the supreme level, coemergent or innate defile- ments no longer arise. However, since at that point they are not harmful in the sense of impelling actions leading to samsara (as they are in the case of ordinary beings), the antidotes to them do not need to be so forcefully ap- plied." [YG II, 148J See also YG II, 149: "As a support for the observance of the precepts, it is important to rely on the 'seven sublime riches.' " See note 121. 136 The followers of Nagarjuna's tradition of the Profound View keep to the teachings of the Akashagarbha-sutra, the Mahaguh)'aupayakausha9'a-sutra, and the Shikshasamu((ha)Ia o f Shantideva. Followers o f Asanga's tradition o f V ast Activi- ties keep to his Bodhisattvabhumi-shastra and the Samvaravimshaka of Chandra- . gomln. 137 rg)'al po'i Itung ba Inga. "The root downfalls of a king are so called because people in positions of power are liable to commit them. But of course they are downfalls for anyone who has taken the bodhisattva vow. They cause beings to fall from the higher, happy state of gods and humans to the lower realms, destroying all the cultivated roots of merit that empower or 'crown' the royal lineage. The downfalls are: I. With an evil intention, to take the property of the Three Jewels or to induce others to do the same. This covers the theft of images, books, articles pertaining to a stupa, the goods belonging to the Sangha or the Spiritual Master, and so on. 2. To repudiate any of the three vehicles or to lead someone into the belief that they do not constitute the path to liberation. 3. To rob, beat, imprison, or kill wearers of the monastic robe (regardless of whether they have taken vows or not and, if they have, regardless of the quality of their discipline) or to force them to return to the lay status, or to induce another to do the same. 4. To commit any of the five sins of immediate effect.

5. To hold wrong views (such as that there is no such thing as karma)." [YG II, 152] See also OS, 239.

138 blon po'; Itung ba lnga. "The first downfall is to destroy aggressively a homestead, a village of four castes, a small town or a large town, or an entire region such as Champaka (the area of the Ganges delta). The other four downfalls correspond to the first four downfalls of a king." [YG II, 153] 139 phal pa'; ltung ba brgyaJ. "I. To teach the doctrine ofemptiness to persons who are unprepared for it or who are liable to be alarmed, since they will as a result relinquish bodhichitta and aspire to the teachings of the Hinayana. 2. Consciously to direct people of Mahayana disposition away from the Mahayana path, and lead them to the practice of the H inayana (insinuating that they are incapable of the attainment of full enlightenment and that they should confine their aspirations merely to freedom from samsara). 3. By an injudicious praise of the Mahayana, to lead people of H inayana disposition to give up their vows of Pratimoksha, and thereby to leave them without any vows. 4. To hold, or teach another to hold, that the following of the H inayana path does not eradicate the defilements, and to say that the Shravakas do not have an authentic path to liberation. 5. For reasons of jealousy, to criticize other Bodhisattvas openly and to praise oneself. 6. Falsely to claim realization of the profound view, wishing thereby to receive gifts and respect. 7. To consort with powerful people, encourage them to persecute practitioners, and secretly appropriate the religious offerings for oneself. 8. To disrupt the practice of meditators by appropriating their goods and distributing them to those who merely study or perform rituals. To disturb those engaged in shamatha meditation through the imposition of bad rules and regulations." [YG II, 154] See also OS, 241• 140 "Although eighteen downfalls are enumerated, they in fact amount to four- teen, since four of the downfalls of a king and four of the downfalls of a minister coincide. These acts, moreover, are referred to as belonging to kings, ministers, or ordinary people, because these are the classes of people most liable to perpetrate them. But of course it is possible for any individual to commit them." [YG II, 155] 141 In addition, Yonttn Gyamtso says that there are eighty faults enumerated in the Sh;kshasamuuha),a. In brief, these are: (I) twenty-four faults in connection with happiness and suffering (i.e., the faults of not dispelling the suffering or nurturing the happiness of others when one is in a position to do so); and

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(2) sixteen faults connected with the giving-up of the practice (i.e., the failure to contrive remedies to the sufferings of others). These two groups together make forty faults. Further categorized according to whether they are tempo- rary or permanent faults, they come to eighty faults. [YG II, 156] 142 See YG II, 158; OS, 279; Oudjom Rinpoche, Perfect Conduct, p. 96, for an exposition of the method of repairing faults according to the tradition of Nagarjuna. 143 "If aspirational bodhichitta is lost, the bodhichitta vow is itself instantly annihilated, without any consideration of the time periods concerned, as when a fresco collapses simultaneously with the wall on which it is painted. The same applies when the bodhichitta precepts are given back. This is in contrast with the four permutations of returning or damaging the vow, as spoken of in the Pratimoksha, according to which vows may indeed be given back if one is unable to keep them. These four permutations are: (I) not giving back the vows and not damaging them; (2) not giving them back but damaging them; (3) not damaging them but giving them back; and (4) damag- ing them and giving them back. By contrast, the vow of bodhichitta may under no circumstances be returned, on pain of incurring an extremely griev- ous fault. This is because to return the vow amounts to breaking the promise to help all sentient beings until they attain enlightenment.... If, on the other hand, a root downfall is committed, the confession of it, done or not done in the requisite period of time, is the factor that determines whether the continuity of the training has been broken." [YG II, 158] 144 "People of superior capacity realize that downfalls are primordially without true existence. For such people, these arise in the sphere of discursiveness and, like a design traced on the surface of the water, they are unable to leave behind either habitual tendency or residual effect. But people who are still at the stage where meditation is alternated with post-meditation experience must act according to the prescriptions of the Mahamoksha-sutra." [YG II, 162] 145 Another, more formal way of confession is described in the tradition of Vast Activities of Asanga. See OS, 283; Oudjom Rinpoche, Perfect Conduct, p. 98. 146 For an extensive treatment of this subject, see The Wa)1 of the Bodhisattva, VIII, 90-98; 141-154; and the commentary of Khenchen Kunzang Pelden translated in the same volume, pp. I 82ff. 147 The demon in Indian mythology who by periodically swallowing the sun and the moon is responsible for eclipses. 148 According to Asanga's Bodhisattvabhumi-shastra, there are four root downfalls to be avoided: (I) out of desire for reputation and honor, to praise oneself and belittle others; (2) to refrain from giving, whether materially or spiritually, through a sense of miserliness; (3) to harm others out of anger; and (4) ignorantly to criticize the Mahayana as not being the Buddha's word and to concoct one's own teaching, proclaiming it to be the authentic doctrine. [OS,

252J In addition, there are forty-six minor infractions of the precepts of bodhichitta in action. These are explained in the Samvaravimshaka of Chandra- gomin. See OS, 254; Dudjom Rinpoche, Ptrjtct Conau(t, p. 84.

149 "The transcendent perfection of generosity and the rest are defined by four special qualities (kh)'aa (hos bzhi): (I) they eliminate their contraries; (2) they are associated with the wisdom transcending the three spheres, or notions of subject, object, and action; (3) they fulfill the wishes of others; and (4) they lead beings, subject to their karmic lot, to maturation in any of the three types of enlightenment. They are called paramita (literally, param = other shore, ita = gone) because they transcend the corresponding worldly virtues and those of the Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas and reach beyond samsara." [YG II, 185J 150 This distinction is made according to whether the practice is undertaken in relation to conceptual reference. While the accumulation of merit implies the presence of dualistic concepts of subject and object, the accumulation of wisdom implies their absence. 151 Paramitas seven to ten are not so much separate perfections as qualities ac- companying the previous six paramitas. 152 "If a person is able to relinquish attachment to possessions, this is considered to be supreme generosity. For generosity consists in a mind that has no craving for possessions." [YG II, 200J 153 "As for great generosity, we should reflect as follows and make the resolution: 'At the moment I am deeply attached to my family and dear ones; I want to be with them forever, and for their sake I get angry and possessive and this is an evil. We will, in any case, be separated sooner or later, and so I must rid myself of this kind of clinging. I will train myself so that I will one day be able to relinquish them, like the great Bodhisattvas.' " [YG II, 203J 154 "The physical body is a mass of filthy substances, and life is rushing by like a powerful gale. Both these things follow karma and are dependent on it. Even though at all times, people do everything to protect their bodies and their lives, both are liable to be destroyed by fire, water, precipices, political powers, wild animals, robbers, and so on. And even if they do not meet with such a fate, when death comes, their bodies will be cremated or thrown into the water, scattered for the vultures, or buried in the earth. In the end, nothing will be left of them, not even the slightest particle of dust. Yet while in life, people cherish their bodies, considering them their dearest possession. They do everything to protect them, and for their sake they inflict harm on others, whether in thought or deed. For us who are disciples of the compassionate Buddha, all this is a serious mistake. Therefore, we should repeatedly repudi- ate attachment to our bodies and offer them to other beings. Far from using our bodies as an instrument for harming others, we should use them directly for their help, and indirectly so in the practice of Dharma-for this itself

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must be animated by an altruistic attitude. To practice religion for one's own sake is quite incorrect. And even though, at the moment, we are not actually able to make a gift of our bodies and lives, it is imponant to be aware of the need to train ourselves with a view to emulating the great Bodhisattvas who could indeed give up their bodies, freely and at will. For we will never acquire such a capacity unless we train ourselves over and over again. This truth is set fonh in the Shikshasamuccha),a, and It is imponant to begin the training now." [YG II, 204] 155 There is a story that a pigeon used to listen to Vasubandhu reciting the sutras. This had the effect of purifying the karma of its previous existences. When it died it was reborn a human being and became the master Sthiramati. [YG II, 214] 156 "How is it that it is sometimes taught nevenheless that, aside from wrong views, the other two negative acts of mind are occasionally permitted? If the motive is analyzed in detail, one can see that it is possible to covet the wealth of a person of low merit in order to make offerings on that person's behalf. Or again one might wish to reduce the power and influence of someone who is destroying the teachings and injuring others. Mental actions such as these do not have the complete characteristics of a negativity. They are therefore admissible. However, it is never taught that truly negative actions of the mind are permissible." [YG II, 227J 157 "Ordination into the monastic life of homelessness is praised as the best condition for progress toward enlightenment, and it remains so until the supreme ground of realization is attained. Thus, monastic ordination is the best situation for beginners, whose principal training is in the discipline of avoiding negativities. Wearing the robes will remind them to observe the discipline, and they will be easily recognized by both gods and humans as a suitable object of offering. In this way, they will receive sustenance without needing to involve themselves in wearisome activities and will not be defiled by the need to involve themselves in unethical situations. Thus, free from distractions and a troubled conscience, they will have the principal living condition for the development of concentration. The holder of the bodhi- sattva vow who at the same time has the pratimoksha vows is said to observe the 'Pratimoksha of the Bodhisattvas.' " [YG II, 233J 158 "Once upon a time, Indrabodhi, the king of Oddiyana, caught sight of some red objects flying in the sky. They were too far away for him to see what they were. 'What are those strange birds?' he asked. His couniers informed him that they were Shravakas, the followers of the Buddha. Thereupon the king conceived the desire to see the Buddha and prayed to him, and sure enough, the Buddha miraculously appeared in the company of five hundred Arhats. Indrabodhi paid homage to him and asked him to teach him the path to enlightenment. The Buddha said that the king should go fonh into homelessness and embrace the life of a monk, practising the three trainings.

But to this Indrabodhi replied, '0 Gautama, I do not want liberation if it means giving up all that is a delight to my senses! Indeed, I would prefer to be a fox in the pleasant garden of the world!' In that very instant, the retinue of Shravakas vanished and a voice was heard from the sky proclaiming that they had been but the miraculous display of the Bodhisattvas. The Buddha then opened the wisdom mandala of the Guhyasamaja-tantra, and in that very instant, the king attained buddhahood, the union of Oharmakaya and Rupa- kaya." [OS 294J

159 "The monastic discipline should possess eight qualities. It should be (I) un- impaired, that is, not transgressed even once. It should therefore be (2) fault- less because free it is of any defect. It should be (3) unadulterated through not being mixed with any unwholesome factors. It should be (4) unsullied by motivations aiming at prosperity or the concerns of this life. It should be (5) uncontaminated by inconstancy. It should be (6) powerful, through possessing the five foregoing qualities, and (7) praised by the learned and the Aryas. Finally, it should (8) favor the practice of concentration. Concentra- tion renders the mind serviceable, so that wisdom and the other qualities of the path may develop. Therefore, discipline is the ground in which all quali- ties can grow." [YG II, 243J 160 The vows of shramanera or getsul are sometimes referred to in English as novice vows. This is incorrect. The term "novice" in this context has been mistakenly borrowed from Christian monasticism where it denotes a monk in training prior to profession or the taking of vows. The novitiate is neces- sarily a temporary condition (usually lasting between one and two years). In Buddhism, by contrast, the shramanera or getsul ordination embodies a com- plete monastic grade in itself, and many monks keep this ordination through- out their lives. Moreover, given that the lineage of bhikshuni or gtlongma vows has been interrupted (and may never have existed) in Tibet, the vast majority of Tibetan Buddhist nuns are permanent gttsulmas. 161 The basic idea here is that a lie is only completely accumulated (and the vow broken) when a falsehood is spoken to a human being with the above men- tioned qualifications. Hermaphrodites and so on are presumably mentioned here in the sense of their not being in possession of the entire range of human attributes. The preoccupation is one of scholastic precision in stipulating the criteria for the loss of the vow. It does not mean that lying to eunuchs is admissible. 162 In addition to touching a man, these are: traveling alone, swimming, sitting close to a man, arranging marriages, and concealing the faults of another woman novice in training for full ordination. [OS, 108J 163 Ibid. In addition to the fault mentioned, these are: shaving the pubic hair, digging the earth, hoarding uneaten food, eating food that has not been offered, and cutting green grass. [OS, 108J

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164 See also OS, 109. 165 "When a root defeat is committed (phas pham pa), the monk's ordination is completely destroyed." [YG II, 249J 166 "These faults are termed residual (lhag ma) because after their commission, only a residue of the ordination remains. And before such faults are repaired, the monk in question is demoted and required to take last place in the Sangha, eating only the food that is left over from the communal meal." [YG II, 251] 167 "Downfalls requiring rejection (spang ba'i ltung bJ'ed) are so called because they can only be repaired by the repudiation of the object through which the downfall has occurred. And they are called downfalls because, if they are not repaired, they create the cause for falling into the lower realms. There are ten such downfalls related separately to monastic robes, seats, and begging bowls (thus thirty all together)." [YG II, 252J See also OS, 119 and Dudjom Rin- poche, Perfect Conduct, pp. 34-36. 168 These are called downfalls (ltung bJ'ed 'ba 'zhig), because, as with the previous thirty, their commission leads to the lower realms, but their reparation does not involve the repudiation of the objects. For more information, see Dudjom Rinpoche, Perfect Conduct, pp. 37-44. 169 "Thesefourfaults(SOT bshagssdebzhi)-mainlyrelatedtothetakingoffood- are purified by a specific and contrite confession made while standing outside the monastery precincts." [YG II, 256J See also Dudjom Rinpoche, Perfect Conduct, pp. 44-45. 170 These are minor faults (nyes byas) of general deportment. In the Theravada tradition, they are less numerous. See OS, 153 and Dudjom Rinpoche, Perfect Conduct, pp. 45-50. 171 sbom po, lit. gross. This refers to the radical defeats and residual faults the commission of which does not involve all the elements necessary for the full accomplishment of the act. See chapter 3, p. I 38ff. 172 The four doors that lead to transgression are: ignorance of the precepts, lack of respect for them, negligence, and an excess of defiled emotions. It is obvi- ously impossible to respect and observe what one is ignorant of. 173 See OS, 163 and Dudjom Rinpoche, Perfect Conduct, pp. 51-53. 174 gso sb)'ong, Skt. uposatha. "The ritual of restoration and purification refreshes the remedial force of virtue and cleanses all faults. This ritual is of two kinds. The first, which is called 'calm abiding' (zhi gnas kyi gso sbyong), purifies the obscurations accumulated in the past and perfects the superior trainings in concentration and wisdom. The second is called 'concordant' (mthun pa'i gso sh)'ong), whereby wrongdoing is avoided in the present life and the training in discipline is kept pure. The former refers to the practice of shamatha and vipashyana meditation, while the latter consists of the ritual of formal confes-

sion. This again is of two kinds: first, the ritual performed regularly on the fourteenth or fifteenth of the lunar month, and second, the private confession performed, when and as necessary, as a means of receiving blessing and in order to avert calamities and foster harmony in the Sangha." [YG II, 270]

175 dbyar gnas. "The traditional summer retreat begins either on the fifteenth day of the sixth lunar month and finishes three months later, on the fifteenth day of the ninth month, or else it lasts from the fifteenth day of the seventh month till the fifteenth of the tenth month." [YG II, 272] See also OS, 168. 176 dgag dbJ,t. The ritual that concludes the summer retreat must be performed even when the retreat is interrupted by external circumstances. It marks the lifting of all the restrictions imposed during the summer retreat. 177 The seventeen regulations referred to here cover: (I) ordination; (2) ritual of restoration and purification; (~) summer retreat and (4) its concluding ritual; (5) the prohibition of the use of fur and leather; (6) the rules for nourishment and the practice of medicine; (7) the proper color and style of the robes; (8) the so-called kathina practice, namely, the making and distribution of the robes, and so on; (9) the practice of kaushambi, or the smooth pacification of divisions; (10) other prescribed formalities (of which there are more than a hundred); (II) the imposition of discipline for the "orange-clad," in other words, the forceful settling of problems and the imposition of punishments for indiscipline; (12) the dealing with cases of indiscipline on the individual level (the problems of how to deal with breaches of conduct, penances given for faults confessed, and excommunication for faults upheld); (I~) the demo- tion in monastic rank for serious infractions and failure to attend the ritual of restoration and purification; (14) regulations regarding suspension from the restoration and purification ritual; (15) rules connected with dwelling places; and finally (16) the settling of quarrels and (17) the healing of divi- sions. See Buddhist Ethics, p. 129ff. 178 This is an allusion to the fact that the inhabitants of the Northern Conti- nent have all that they could possibly wish. They are therefore free of craving (chags pa). "In general, there are four types of discipline: naturally infused discipline, the discipline of one who has realized ultimate reality, the discipline of ob- serving a vow, and the discipline of the one who is in samadhi in which all faults are discarded." [YG II, 286] 179 I. thams cad)'od par smra ba, the Sarvastivadins: those who "hold that every- thing exists." This does not mean that they accepted the reality of everything, but only ofseventy-five dharmas which they recognized as ultimate and having permanent existence. 2. phal chtn sdt pa, the Mahasanghikas: the Great Assembly (from which the Mahayana is said to have developed). ~. gnas brttn pa, the Sthaviras, the Elders (the Theravada, the only shravaka school still existent as such, mainly found in southern Asia). NOTES 471

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4. mang bos bkur ba, the Sammitiya: the followers of Sammita. An impor- tant subdivision of this school was known as the Vatsiputriyas, gnas ma bu ba, whose distinctive tenet was the assertion of a quasi-permanent self, neither different from nor identical with the skandhas. This school seems to have been very successful, although no original works have survived the test of time. 180 With regard to the spread of the Sarvastivada in Tibet, Kyabje Oudjom Rinpoche says: "The Vinaya tradition practiced in Tibetan Buddhism is that of the Sarvastivada school introduced to Tibet by Shantarakshita. This lin- eage began with the Buddha and was passed down through Shariputra, Ra- hula (or Saraha), Nagarjuna, Bhavaviveka, and others. Following the persecution of Langdarma, this Vinaya lineage revived and spread again from the lowlands of Kham and is for this reason called the Eastern or Lowland Lineage of the Vinaya (smad 'dul). This lineage continues to this day and is the system into which all Nyingmapas and most Gelugpas are ordained. "At a later date, the master Oharmapala, a pandit from eastern India, went to Ngari in western Tibet (so-called Upper Tibet) and introduced another ordination lineage, referred to as the Western or Upland Lineage of the Vinaya (stod 'dul). This is also known as the 'lineage ofthe three Pala brothers' (referring to Oharmapala's three main disciples: Saddhupala, Gunapala, and Prajiiapala). "At a still later date, the Kashmiri pandit Shakya Shri came to Tibet and ordained Sakya Pandita and others, thus inaugurating the tradition known as the Middle Lineage of Vinaya (bar 'dul), into which most Sakyapas and Ka- gyupas are ordained. Note that since the original 'Upland Lineage' is nor- mally considered extinct, the 'Middle Lineage' is now often referred to as the 'Upland Lineage of Vinaya.' " [OS, 77] 181 See the text chos kyi rnam grangs in the Tengyur, the Tibetan collection of shastras. Krikin was a contemporary of the Buddha Kashyapa. According to the story, he had a dream in which he saw a large piece of cloth divided into eighteen pieces, each of which, when measured, proved to be the same size as the original piece. It was interpreted as a sign of the propagation of the eighteen shravaka schools. 182 See also OS, 381. 183 "Some say that the following two root verses are not by Jigme Lingpa." [OKR] 184 "The spontaneous display of wisdom." [OKR] 185 "The aspirational dtity, on the path of accumulation, is the deity contrived by thought at the generation stage only. It is, however, linked with the wisdom of the perfection stage. By contrast, on the path of joining, the dtity of tht wind-mind is not contrived by thought. It is a deity manifesting in the manner of an illusion from the strength of familiarity with the conceptual phase of

the perfection stage. On the path ofseeing, the dtity ofluminosif)' is the sponta- neous radiance of ultimate wisdom actualized during the nonconceptual phase of the perfection stage. On the path of meditation, one speaks of the dtif)' of tht unittd ltvtl of tht path of ltarning, while at the level of buddhahood, the union of the Oharmakaya and Rupakaya is called the dtity of tht unittd ltvtl of no mort ltarning." [YG II, 297]

186 "This wisdom may be either 'example wisdom' or 'ultimate wisdom.' These are identical in their nature and form; they are different in that 'example wisdom' is accompanied by conceptual movement." [OKRJ 187 "There are four additional impediments to the taking of the pratimoksha vows of shramanera and full ordination. These are: (I) sk),t ba'i bar chad, a congenital obstacle, that is, to be born without the capacity for sexual activity, and therefore to be without the basis of the vow; (2) gnas pa'i bar chad, an environmental obstacle, namely, the lack of permission on the part of one's family or secular authorities, thereby running the risk of being compelled to repudiate the vow; (3) kh)'ad par bar chad, individual and private obstacles, that is, to be so young as to be incapable of scaring crows away, or to be infirm or seriously handicapped to the point where keeping the vows becomes an intolerable burden, with the result that it is impossible to develop the quali- ties that observance of the vows is meant to produce; (4) mdzts pa'i bar chad, to be of deformed physical appearance (as to color and shape) and to follow an evil profession, such as butchery, thereby creating a scandal which weakens the faith of people in the Buddhadharma." It should be noted that these last two obstacles are not insurmountable. [OS, 87] 188 "In the course of the empowerment, the teacher uses symbols, implied mean- ings, and signs to introduce the wisdom that has dwelt within the mind from the very beginning, thus holding in check the inveterate habit of viewing phenomena as ordinary." [OKRJ 189 In other words, the practitioner is beyond observance of the vows and also beyond violation of them. 190 In this context, the term "transformation" is used only approximately. In fact, the wisdom in question is ever-present in the very depths of the ordinary mind, though veiled by adventitious factors. When these veils are removed, the innate wisdom shines fonh. This is consequently referred to as bral 'bras, "a result occuring through removal" (of obstructions). 191 "For example, the sexual yoga performed with the three specific attitudes may appear to be an ordinary sexual act. But since the yogic practitioner has transmuted his or her ordinary perception of male and female into the percep- tion of male and female deities, the first element, the ordinary object of desire, is absent. Since actual physical union is a practice performed in accordance with the skillful methods of the vow, the second element of ordinary physical union is absent. Finally, since the yogi or yogini transmutes the sensation of NOTES 473

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climax into primordial wisdom and does not lose the essence, the third ele- ment, pleasure, is absent." [OS 389] 192 According to the ri chos of Karma Chagme, this somewhat shadowy figure was an Indian master who visited Tibet on three occasions (after the persecution of Langdarma), each time assuming a different identity. During his first visit, he was known as Shardakara and transmitted teachings, the nature of which Karma Chagme does not describe. On the second occasion, he appeared in the province of Ngari and was known as Atsara Marpo (the Red Teacher). It was then that he propagated the ideas on tantric practice described here. At the time of his third visit, he was known, it seems, as Gayadhara and translated the Thirteen Golden Teachings much valued in the Sakya tradition. 193 "I.e., they are superimposed." [DKR] 194 "Scholars who believe that the essence of the three vows is different take exception to the Nyingma standpoint. They say that the notions of transfor- mation and single essence are mutually exclusive. They argue that if one can talk about iron being transmuted into gold, the implication is that the two metals are different and do not have the same nature. Also, in view of the fact that the consciousness of the alaya is transformed into mirrorlike wisdom, the assertion that the two must have the same nature leads, they say, to the absurd consequence that mirrorlike wisdom is the basis of deluded propensities. Once again, the notion of the same nature clashes with the idea of transfor- mation. For if iron and gold have the same nature, what need is there for transformation? O f course one could argue that before transformation, the two metals lack the same nature but afterward, they acquire it. But in anticipa- tion of this objection, they say that if that were the case, the nature of gold is compromised and regarded as changeable. It is therefore incorrect, they say, to claim that gold has the same nature as iron. For if it had, it would follow that gold is a base metal like iron, while iron, even before transmuta- tion, must be precious and as valuable as gold. If this argument is examined, it is evident that it is merely by pointing out the flaws in the example that they are trying to discredit the meaning that the example is intended to express. I do not think this is a valid procedure. In ordinary terms, when iron is transmuted into gold, one would not normally say that (at the end of the process) the gold is something completely different from the iron, but rather that the iron has "changed into gold"-they are one and the same (i.e., a single mass that remains the subject of the transformation). Likewise, the pratimoksha and bodhichitta vows are transformed into the mantrayana vow. The earlier mental stream that had the nature of renunciation and altruism is now enhanced by the pure perception of the Mantrayana. It is in this sense that one can talk about the vows having the same nature. And not only is this not inadmissible, it is, on the contrary, highly acceptable! For it is the mind of the person that is gradually transformed, starting from entry into the path and going right up to the attainment of the result. It is in this sense that

it is possible to speak of the single nature." [YG II, 319J According to Karma Chagme, this is the view of Karmapa Chodrak Gyamtso.

195 According to Karma Chagme, this is the view of Khedrup-Je, although ac- cording to Patrul Rinpoche it is the view ofJeTsongkhapa himself. 196 This sounds like the incorrect opinion cited earlier (with the example of earth, water, and boat). However, here the emphasis is being placed on the enhancement of qualities, due to which a cenain transformation is seen to occur. 197 "When hearing about the teachings ofthe Mantrayana, some people entertain wrong views and reject it, and thereby create the cause for falling into the lower realms. In order to prevent this from happening, one should introduce them to the tantric teachings only at a later time." [DKRJ 198 "I.e., the means and wisdom that come from the stages of generation and perfection." [DKRJ 199 Uncompounded discipline is the discipline of one who has realized the equal- ity of all things. For such a person there is no observer and nothing to be observed. This is the authentic paramita of discipline. 200 "The Madhyamikas define a vow as a 'consciousness concomitant with a mental factor that is the intention' (spongs snns mtshungs lJan dang bcas pa) to refrain from wrong actions. They are not obliged to say that this is an autono- mous continuum, because of their general assertion that everything is depen- dent arising.... As long as benefit and harm result from positive and negative thoughts, one should, on the relative level, observe and not neglect the pre- cepts concerning what is to be done and what is to be avoided." [YG II, 331J 201 See note 88. 202 "Their own bodies, the body of a partner, or phenomena in general." [DKRJ 203 "Generally speaking, there is nothing definite about what should be cultivated and what should be prohibited. Words and deeds in themselves are neutral (their goodness or badness derives from motive)." [YG II, 333J (It should be noted that, as already shown, the operative attitude is that of bodhichitta. Motive here should not be confused with moral conscience of the kind re- ferred to in certain Western moral theories.) 204 "It is said in the Avatamsaka-sutra: 'When Bodhisattvas enter a house, they generate bodhichina wishing that all beings reach the city of Liberation. When they lie down to rest, they wish that all beings attain the Dharmakaya. When they rise, they wish that all beings attain the Rupakaya, and so fonh...." [YG II, 342J 205 "Free of all self-concern, we should g;vt beings our bodies (indeed all the five aggregates), the possessions that we need for our subsistence, and all our merits of the past, present, and future. Because we should protter what has NOTES 475

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been given for the enjoyment of beings, we must strive in conformity with the Dharma to avoid things that are hazardous for our present and future lives and that endanger the very basis for altruistic activity. Thus the text says: 'Protecting one's body means to stop inflicting harm.' With regard to wealth, the best protection is the practice of virtue and a sense of contentment with what one has. Thus: 'Act correctly. By training in this way, you will protect your wealth without difficulty.' To dedicate the fruits of merit to the enlightenment of all instead of nourishing the improper hope of getting them for oneself is the best way to protect one's merit. 'Abandon the selfish wish for results, thus you will protect all your merits. Have no regret and do not talk about what you have done but rather have a horror of wealth and renown, abandoning all pride. Have faith in the Bodhisattvas and rid yourself of doubt in the Dharma.' It is not enough just to protect one's body, possessions and merits. One must purifJI them of all adverse factors. The body is purified by cleansing negative actions and cultivating the antidotes to defiled emotion. 'To purify the body means to cleanse away all negative actions and emotions.' To give up a wrong kind of livelihood and to cultivate virtue, in which skillful means and wisdom are conjoined, is what is meant by the purification of possessions, and merits. 'It should be understood that one's possessions are pure insofar as one's livelihood is pure. Merits are made pure by cultivating emptiness endowed with the essence of compassion.' However, even though the 'body, possessions, and merit' are purified, if one fails to increase them, it will be impossible to fulfill the wishes of beings. It is necessary therefore to develop them further. The increase of strength and endeavor corresponds to the development of the body: 'The development of the body means to banish laziness and train in strength.' Likewise, to give in charity in a way that unites skillful means and wisdom is to increase one's possessions. 'To give emptiness endowed with the essence of compassion means to increase one's wealth.' To increase merit means to train oneself to act in the manner of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra." [YG II, 344] 206 See Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche in Enlighttned Courage, p. 61: "When an angry pig rears up at us, if we hit it on the nose with a stick it will immediately tum round and run away, unable to bear the pain. If we clean the butter- lamp while it is still warm, the job is very easily done." 207 "Whichever path one wishes to practice, it is not sufficient simply to speak and act; it is important to pledge oneself with a powerful resolve. People who truly intend the benefit of others are in effect at war with four demons that hinder them from their goal. They must therefore acquire great fortitude, which is a powerful armor, impervious to the weapons of adversaries. In order to vanquish the Demon of the Defilements (a single one of the eighty-four thousand defilements is enough to prevent the attainment of liberation), they must stick to their pledge even if they have to persevere in it, beset by hun- dreds of difficulties, for measureless kalpas. As for the Demon 'Child of the

Gods,' the dissipater of concentration, when practitioners endure the hard- ships of the path, they take a pledge not to relinquish their diligence and to strive for virtue, even if they gain the power, reputation, society, and affluence of a Chakravartin king. This pledge is naturally accompanied by the armor that vanquishes the Demon of Death, the creator of obstacles to life, and also the Demon of the Aggregates, which is a hindrance to the gaining of nirvana without remainder. Finally, it is necessary to strive to integrate and bring into experience all the profound and vast teachings that are revealed in the pitaka of the Mahayana." [YG II, 369]

208 "Beginners should most of all avoid negative actions. Those on the level of the path of aspiration must gather virtue while those on the supreme bodhi- sattva grounds should devote themselves to the benefit of others." [YG II, 371] 209 It is said in the teachings on the intermediary state that the recently dead possess a certain clairvoyance and are able to perceive their former habitat and companions and are aware of the latter's thoughts and actions. 210 These are the Ganges, Indus, Oxus, and Tarim, four rivers rising in the Hima- layas and flowing into India. 211 A reference to the traditional classification of diseases according to the four medical tantras. 212 I.e., with the feet resting on the thighs or, in the case of half-vajra, with one foot resting on the thigh of the other leg, the other foot being tucked underneath. 213 In the present context ofshamatha meditation, "form" refers to visible objects such as a pebble or an image or visualization of the Buddha, and so on; "formless" refers to the breath, emptiness, the mind, and so on. 214 "At the outset, the beginners devote themselves to the practice of calm abid- ing or shamatha, concentrating one-pointedly on an image, for example, of the Buddha adorned with all the major and minor marks. As it is said in the Samaahiraja-sutra: Those who rest their minds upon The beauteous golden form of Buddha, Guardian of the world, are called Bodhisattvas who repose in evenness. "The mind is fixed for a lengthy period of time on this object, remaining concentrated on it to the exclusion of all else. Then, in order to accomplish profound insight or vipashyana, the meditator must first examine the object of concentration. The body of the Tathagata, adorned with the major and minor marks, which appears as the mind's object, has no existence whatever separate from the mind, not even to the slightest extent. The object of con- centration is but an appearance within the mind. And yet, at the same time, NOTES 477

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there is nothing that could be pointed out as being 'the mind.' What cannot be pointed out or found does not exist, has never existed, and will never exist. Convinced that this is the inconceivable ultimate reality, the meditator rests in equipoise, free of thoughts." [YG II, 397] 215 "The Samadhiraja-sutra says: Concentration is the even ground, Peaceful, subtle, not to be observed. Since all perceptions are subdued, It is the holding of the very depths." [YG II, 398J To "hold the depths" is the literal translation of the Tibetan term for concen- tration (ting ngt 'dzin). 216 "The expression 'enjoyment concentration' refers to the fact that this kind of concentration results in the enjoyment of the higher realms." [YG II, 400] 217 shin sbyangs. This refers to virtuosity in training in the course of which all negative aspects of body and mind are eliminated. 218 219 ziL g)'is gnon pa'i sk),t mchtd brgyad. See appendix 9. ),id La h),td pa drug. "This refers to the six types of attention. (The mental factor of attention or mental engagement, ),id La h),td pa, means that the mind focuses steadily on its object.) The six types of attention are: (I) mtshan n),id rab tu rig p a ) , i d La h ) , t d p a , a t t e n t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o a c o r r e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c h a r a c - ter of the lower and higher realms. This means to focus alternately, through reflecting on the peaceful character of the higher realms and the harsh charac- ter of the lower realms. (2) mos pa )'id La bytd pa, attention with regard to the appreciation of the qualities of the higher realms. This means that the earlier study deepens into shamatha and vipashyana. (3) dbtn pa ),id La bytd pa, attention with regard to the discarding of the afflictions. It occurs when one is in the process of eliminating the three greatest degrees of the emotions of the desire realm. (4) dga' ba sdud pa yid La h),td pa, attention with regard to the accumulation of joy. It means that through the absence of affliction one enjoys a lesser kind of bliss. It is now that the medium degrees of the emotions of the desire realm are eliminated. (5) dh)'od pa yid La bytd pa, attention in which the mind focuses steadily on the investigation. It means to examine whether one pos- sesses subtle afflictions, thereby eliminating the lesser degrees of affliction in the desire realm. (6) sh)'or ba'i mtha' yid La h),td pa, attention that focuses on the fruit of the practice." [YG II, 408] I.e., the four samadhis of form, the four formless absorptions, together with the absorption of cessation. This makes nine. Instead of the absorption of cessation, the Abhidharma speaks of the "preparatory stage, nytr bsdogs, of the first samadhi," i.e., 'dod StmS rtst gcig, the "one-pointed mind of the desire realm." 220

221 "The practice of shamatha renders the mind immovable and impervious to the wind of thoughts. It is, however, unable to uproot defilements. It is vipashyana that eradicates the obscurations of ignorance and the belief in self. The Shravakas have more concentration than wisdom, whereas the Bodhi- sattvas have more wisdom than concentration. By contrast, the Tathagatas have both in equal measure." [YG II, 410]

222 "When mastery is gained in this meditation, in which all 'nonexistent' phe- nomena of relative truth appear as an illusion, practitioners acquire the power in post-meditation to produce magical apparitions according to their wish. For this reason, they are is said to possess 'miragelike concentration' (sgyu ma Ita bu'i ting ngt 'dzin). When their concentration is perfect and able to overcome all adversity, and when it is accompanied by all the elements leading to en- lightenment and displays the vast activities of buddhahood and is, in addition, immune to the fear of falling into a nirvana without remainder, it is called 'fearless or heroic concentration' (dpa' bar gro ba'i ting ngt 'dzin). ... Finally, they attain the 'diamondlike concentration' (rdo rjt Ita bu'i ting ngt 'dzin), so called because it is able to vanquish all obscurations, just as a diamond can break all other stones. The first concentration is experienced while the Bodhi- sattva is on the first to the seventh (i.e., the impure) grounds. The second concentration occurs while the Bodhisattva is on the pure grounds, i.e., the eighth to the tenth. Only at the end of the tenth ground is the third concen- tration attained." [YG II, 413] 223 This complex subject is discussed at length in the Prajnaparamita sutras. The distinction between "percept-thought" and "perceiver-thought" may perhaps be compared with the distinction made by Benrand Russell between "sense- data" and sensation. See Tht Problems of Philosoph)" p. 4. 224 "The four reliances are as follows: I. Knowledge of the Dharma comes from following a spiritual friend. However, the object of reliance is not the person of the teacher but the doctrine that he or she expounds. One should follow a teacher only after examining what he or she says. 2. Since the teaching is to be implemented, one should rely on its meaning, not on its mode of expression. 3. The meaning has two aspects: expedient and definitive. One must rely on the definitive meaning, and though one follows the expedient teaching for the time being, one should always do so with a view to the definitive meaning. 4. The definitive meaning is comprehended by the mind. However, since intellectual assessment, however excellent, does not extend beyond the relative truth, it should not be relied upon. Reliance should be placed in thought-free wisdom that sees the absolute truth directly." [YG II, 425] 225 See the Akshayamatinirdtsha-sutra. "What are the sutras of definitive meaning and what are the sutras of expedient meaning? The sutras taught with the NOTES 479

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purpose of introducing people to the path are the sutras of the expedient meaning. The sutras taught in order that they can engage in the result are the sutras of definitive meaning." [YG II, 428J 226 The three natures or realities (rang bzhin gsum) are characteristic of the third turning of the Dharma wheel, as discussed in scriptures such as the Sandhinir- mochana-sutra. These texts are interpreted differently by the Chittamatra school and the Madhyamika school. "The following is a general exposition: I. Imputed reality (kun brtags). This consists in the mind's reification of what does not exist in and by itself. An illustration of this is the idea of a 'self,' which in fact has no existence. Imputed reality also refers to all mistaken tenets and to all things of which the mind assumes a real existence but which lack this in any objective, concrete sense. 2. Dependent reality (gzhan dbang). This has two aspects: (i) impure and (ii) pure: I. Our experience of the environment, the outer world and its inhabitants, is a product of deluded perceptions which are deeply ingrained. These perceptions are deluded precisely on account of the mind's tendency to reify, as previously mentioned. This kind of perception may be likened to a situation in which a man falls victim to a magical trick and sees an illusory horse which he then assumes to exist. All such appearances are classified as impure dependent reality. ii. Pure dependent reality refers to the perceptions of the outer world experienced by the Aryas in the times when they are not absorbed in meditation. They are 'pure' because uncontaminated by the tendency to reify, on account of which they are apprehended as existing in and by themselves. They could be also illustrated in terms of the previous example as being like the state of mind of the magician, who also sees the illusory horse that he has magically created but does not assent to its real, concrete existence. 3. Actual reality (yongs grub). Again, this is twofold: (i) unchanging and (ii) unmistaken. I. This is emptiness itself, the ultimate reality of all phenomena, their unchanging nature regardless of whether or not beings understand it. ii. This refers to the wisdom that directly and fully understands the ultimate reality of phenomena." [YG I, 281J 227 Mipham Rinpoche said that here the Buddha was speaking from the point of view of ultimate reality, not from the point of view of relative existence. [KJ, 316J 228 Mipham Rinpoche: "The Buddha did not mean that they would be born in Sukhavati immediately after their deaths." [KJ, 316J

229 Mipham Rinpoche: "The expression 'existing in the manner of a dream' means that things exist only on the conventional level." [KJ, 316J

230 In the root verses, Jigme Lingpa adopts the wording of the Sanahinirmo(hana- sutra. 231 These correspond to the incorrect theories of causality (as viewed from the Madhyamika perspective) typified by four schools of Indian philosophy. (I) Phenomena arise from themselves (Samkhya); (2) phenomena arise from ex- trinsic causes (the lower schools of Buddhist philosophy); (3) phenomena arise both from themselves and from other causes (Jaina); (4) phenomena have no cause (Charvaka). See also Khenchen Kunzang Pelden, The Ntctar of Manjushri's Speech, p. 37Iff. Cf. Nagarjuna's Mulamaahyamaka-karika, "Not from itself and not from something else, Not from both and not without a cause, Does any thing whatever, Anywhere, at any time, arise." (I, I) 232 "For some were saying that his teachings were too elementary." [KJ, 318J 233 I.e., two of the twelve links of dependent arisings. See chapter 4. 234 "Here 'father' and 'mother' are to be construed as the interdependent links of Craving and Grasping, respectively. The king is to be understood as the alaya, while the 'two of pure life' refer to the Brahmins, who represent the view of 'I' (the transitory composite), and to the virtuous ascetics, who repre- sent the wrong view of ethical and doctrinal superiority. The 'country and the royal court' refer to the senses and the eight dualistic consciousnesses." [DKRJ 235 "This is the position of the Svatantrika Madhyamikas. From the standpoint of the absolute truth, they argue that, if one assesses the two kinds of relative truth, both 'mistaken' and 'unmistaken' are on a level; they are the same in being produced by deluded propensities. Both appear to the senses and nei- ther has true existence. In conventional terms, however, some phenomena function (i.e., are efficient) and some do not. And this is called unmistaken and mistaken relative truth." [YG II, 452J 236 "For the Vaibhashikas, relative truth (kun razob bam pa) and imputed existence (btagsJoa) have the same meaning, and likewise absolute truth (aon aam) means the same thing as substantial existence (razasJoa)." [YG II, 466J 237 "The Sautrantikas are divided into two groups. The 'Sautrantikas following scripture' regard the seven sections of the Abhidharma as the shastras of the seven Arhats (Shariputra, etc.) but nonetheless regard them as authoritative (the Vaibhashikas regard them as Buddha-word). The 'Sautrantikas following reasoning' do not consider these shastras as scriptural authority (i.e., as pro- viding lung gi tshaa rna, or incontrovertible knowledge deriving from scripture) and have recourse to the sutras." [YG II, 469J 238 It is important to bear in mind that the "Sautrantikas following scripture" and the "Sautrantikas following reasoning" (see previous note) have different NOTES 481

ways of distinguishing between the relative and absolute truths. To all intents and purposes, the Sautrantikas following scripture share the same view as the Vaibhashikas in holding that the absolute truth consists in the indivisible particles, while gross extended objects constitute the relative truth. The doc- trine of the Sautrantikas following reasoning is more complex and involves an elaborate epistemological theory that in some respects resembles the repre- sentationist ideas of certain Western philosophers. Here, a distinction is made between the nonconceptual, direct perception of the sense consciousnesses and the conceptual, indirect perception of the mental consciousness. Whereas the sense consciousnesses actually contact external things, technically referred to as specifICally characterizea (rang mtshan), and which are no more than agglomer- ations of atoms, the mental consciousness identifies and knows objects only by virtue of a mental image which is described as generally characterizea (sp)'i mtshan). The mental consciousness does not know external objects but only mental images. Given that the Sautrantikas distinguish absolute and relative truths according to efficiency, that is, the ability to perform functions, it stands to reason that absoluteness is attributed to the external objects and relativeness to the corresponding mental image whereby recognition and knowledge take place. It is obviously only external objects that perform func- tions and not the mental image that the mind has of them. It is worth reflecting that for the Sautrantikas the division between the two truths does not occupy the same importance as it does for the Madhyamikas. This is because for the Sautrantikas the realization of the absolute truth (as defined by them) does not correspond to spiritual realization. Different commentar- ies show variant verb forms in the first half of stanza 132 (aon aam yoa min or aon aam yoa )'in). Following the commentary of Sogpo Ngawang Tendar (yon tan rin po che 'i mazoa k)'i aka' gnaa rao rje 'i rgya maua grel bJ'ea ltgs bshaa g)'i thur ma), we have preferred the latter in the translation of the root stanza.

239 For a description of the Chittamatra view, see Khenchen Kunzang Pelden, The Nectar ofManjushri's Spuch, pp. 31<)-320 and 326-332. See also S. K. Hook- ham, The Buaaha Within, pp. 1<)-20. 2 4 0 The absolute is (I) the mind itself, the stuff of which objects, wrongly imag- ined to be external entities, are "composed." It is absolute because, according to the Chittamatrins, the mind is an ultimate and irreducibly existent reality. The absolute truth consists (2) not only in the mind itself but in the fact that there is nothing but the mina and that any phenomena (kun brtags) only seem to be separate from it. 241 It seems that for the Svatantrikas, it is theoretically possible to confine oneself exclusively to the relative level and to discourse meaningfully about phenom- ena-the way they are and the way they function-without reference to the absolute truth. The absolute truth thus becomes a kind of overarching pro- viso to the effect that phenomena are completely without true existence, but it does not interfere with science and philosophy, which can continue on the relative level. It is still possible to philosophize. There is an obvious, and

probably indispensable, pedagogical advantage in the Svatantrika approach in that it provides space in which a teaching about the nature of phenomena can be elaborated in terms accessible to the ordinary intellect and which can thus help people to progress on the path. At the same time, the critique of the Prasangikas is understandable and inevitable. To say that phenomena have a natural existence of their own on the relative level amounts to attributing true existence to them. It is, so to speak, a ratification of the relative truth as being independently valid. The two truths are divided and their union is in practice abandoned. On the other hand, the purpose of Madhyamika is pre- cisely to undermine the tyranny of clinging to phenomena. It must compro- mise the status of phenomena radically, even on the relative level.

242 Compare T. R. V. Murti, Tht Ctntral Philosoph)I ojBuddhism, p. 87: "The Madhya- mika system seems to have been perfected at one stroke by the genius of its founder-Nagarjuna." 24J Perhaps a reference to Nagarjuna's legendary alchemical accomplishments. 244 According to Buton, Nagarjuna's six treatises on reasoning are: (I) MuLtmadh)Ia- maka-karika, dbu ma rtsa ba'i shts rab (preserved in Sanskrit); (2) Shunyatasaptati, stong nyid bdun beu pa (lost in Sanskrit but preserved in Tibetan); (J) Yuktishastika, rigs pa drug beu pa (lost in Sanskrit but preserved in Tibetan and Chinese); (4) Vigrahav;'avartani, rtsod zlog; (5) Vaida/yasutra and Prakarana, zhib mo rnam 'thag (lost in Sanskrit but preserved in Tibetan); and (6) Vyavaharasiddhi, tha snyad grub. 245 The Madh)!amakavatara is a general commentary on the meaning (don 'grtO of the Karikas, while the Prasannapada is a word-for-word commentary (tshig 'grtO. 246 Chandrakirti says: "When a state of mind attuned to emptiness becomes manifest, this is referred to as the realization of emptiness. But it does not mean that emptiness is realized as an object." [see YG II, 531] 247 They do not originate, they do not dwell, and they do not cease. 248 See the Samadhiraja-sutra: Intellectuals asserting being and nonbeing, Who thus investigate, will find no peace from suffering. Is and is not, pure-impure, Are both extreme positions. But even in the middle the wise forebear to dwell. [reference given in YG II, 5J7] 249 Emphasis here is placed on interdependence rather than on the number twelve. It is a statement about evolutionary causality arranged in a symmetri- cal formula, parallel to the twelvefold cycle of dependent causation as occur- ring in the existence of sentient beings. See OS, 28, where Oudjom Rinpoche says that outer dependent arising can be understood by analyzing from where phenomenal results have arisen.

250 "The notion of interdependence can also be applied to nirvana. For even though nirvana is not a product newly contrived on the basis of compounded phenomena, it is through the accomplishment of the path that adventitious obscurations are removed, that nirvana is actualized, and the creative virtuos- ity of uncompounded wisdom manifests unhindered." [YG II, 543]

251 gnyis mango The lingering appearance of phenomena as separate from the per- ceiver, even after the belief in their true existence has been abandoned. 252 "Some people object that if a sharp analyzing intellect is not operative at all times in the main meditation, and if there is not a cenain apprehension of, and (intellectual) conviction in, the absence of the personal and phenomenal self, the all-discerning wisdom which is the nature of vipashyana cannot occur. But if this were true it would imply that an analyzing intellect must also be present in the meditation of the Aryas-and even at the level of buddhahood. For those who make this objection say that without it there can be no wisdom of vipashyana. In answer, it may be argued that this does not necessarily follow, since, in the context of the present objection, the meditators are ordinary beings and not like the Aryas who have vipashyana due to their direct seeing of ultimate reality. Our answer to this is that, even if there is a certain distinction, according to a given situation, the mind must be attuned to the wisdom that sees the ultimate directly, and it must remain in this state. For a mind caught in ontological extremes cannot bring fonh the wisdom that transcends these extremes." [YG II, 549] 253 The formless realm has four spheres. Staning from the lowest one, these are: (I) nam mkha' mtha'yas, Infinite Space; (2) rnam shts mtha'yas, Infinite Conscious- ness; (3) ci J'ang mtd pa, Utter Nothingness; and (4) )Iod min mtd min, Neither Existence nor Nonexistence (also referred to as the Peak of Existence, srid pa'i rtst mo). 254 This means that they gradually spread downward, from the lowest level of the formless realm, through all the levels of the form realm, to the highest divine abode of the desire realm. 255 The six divine spheres of the realm of desire are in ascending order: (I) rg)'al chtn rigs bzhi, heaven of the Four Great Kings; (2) sum bcu rtsa gsum, heaven of the Thirty-three; (3) 'thab bra~ Free of Conflict; (4) dga' Idan, the Joyous Realm; (5) 'phTUI dga', Enjoying Magical Creations; and (6) gzhan 'phrul dbang bytd, Mas- tery over Magical Creations of Others. 256 Reference is normally made to four periods: (I) rdzogs Idan (perfect endow- ment), when beings are characterized by four features: infinite life, luminous body, miraculous abilities, and sustenance on amrita; (2) gsum Idan (threefold endowment), when beings have only three of these qualities; (3) gnyis Idan (twofold endowment), when they have only two qualities; and (4) rtsod Idan, when all four qualities have declined and beings live in a state of conflict. 257 rigs bzhi. The four social classes or castes correspond to four psychological

types as they originally developed when beings began to live in organized society and support themselves by their work. Insofar as it existed within the context of Indian society, Buddhism recognized the existence of the caste system. But in contrast to Hinduism, which is grounded in the Vedic scrip- tures and therefore assigned rigid ritual functions to the castes, Buddhism advocated spiritual practice for all members of society indifferently. The four castes are bram ze rigs, brahmins; rg)'al rigs, kshatriyas; rie 'u rigs, vaishyas; and dmangs rigs, sudras.

258 According to the Abhidharma, the actual sense faculties are subtle physical objects, variously shaped and located in their bodily supports. Thus, the faculty of sight is positioned in the eye and shaped like a blue flower, the faculty of hearing is in the ear and shaped like a roll of birch bark, and so on. 259 It is not certain which of these two events-light-appearance (snang ba) with the arresting of the thirty-three types of thought produced by anger, or light- increase (mched pa) with the halting of the forty types of thoughts of attach- ment-will appear first at the time of death. In this text, the dissolution of the red element is mentioned first, whereas it is often preceded by the white element. 260 mi mied Jig rtm. Our universe is so called because its inhabitants endure defiled emotion and suffering in great measure and Bodhisattvas endure hardships and practice with courage. The term mi mied can also be interpreted as "fear- less," in which case it is said to apply to our world because the beings therein show no fear of indulging in defilements. Yet another tradition interprets mi mied as "undivided" because in our world, the mind cannot be dissociated from defiled emotions. 26. bdun tshigs. Every week, in the course of the forty-nine days of the bardo period, on the day of the person's death, the consciousness "relives" the painful experience of the moment of death. The performance of the weekly ceremonies for the dead has the effect of alleviating this suffering. 262 Here the sun and the moon of the bodhichitta refer respectively to the male and female essences. 263 In the Abhidharmakosha, Vasubandhu explains each of the sixteen aspects in terms of an incorrect philosophical view to which it constitutes a remedy (see Roger Jackson, Is Enlightenment Possible? pp. 50, 344). 264 These last two aspects are to be understood as referring to the five aggregates of an individual. The third aspect, namely, that of their being without a "self that owns them," may also be understood as a denial of the existence of a universal Creator. 265 "Are all phenomena accounted for within the four truths? The answer to this is no, for it is asserted that certain things are not included, such as space NOTES 485

486 NOTES

and nonanalytical cessation. How then are phenomena categorized? They are accounted for in the aggregate of form, the ayatana of the mind (the six types of consciousness), and mental objects (feelings, perceptions, conditioning fac- tors, imperceptible forms and uncompounded phenomena). [According to the Abhiaharmakosha, there are three uncompounded phenomena: space, cessa- tion through analysis, and cessation without analysis.] Are all the realizations of the Noble Path included within the four truths? Yes, and necessarily so. It should be understood that when cessation is spoken of in the context of the four noble truths, this refers only to cessation through analysis. Cessation without analysis and the absorption of cessation are not included. . . ." [YG I, ~61] For more information on the absorption of cessation, see note 14. 266 According to the Abhidharma (see Mipham Rinpoche's mkhas 'jug), perception is defined as "that which grasps or identifies characteristics" (mtshan par 'azin pa). Perception is related to the six senses: the five physical senses, which are nonconceptual, and the mind or "mental sense," which functions by means of concepts. These two categories of conceptual and nonconceptual percep- tions are themselves divided into two categories according to whether, in the course of their activity, they succeed in discerning the characteristics of their objects. If they do so, they are referred to as mtshan bcas (discerning); if they fail to do so, they are called mtshan mta (nondiscerning). The five (nonconcep- tual) sense perceptions are regarded as discerning (mtshan bcas) when they are operating normally and perceiving their proper objects: colors, sounds, smells, and so forth. Mental perception (which, as we have said, functions by means of concepts) is said to be discerning when it distinguishes identities or names. This happens (I) when the mind recognizes an object and correlates it with its name and (2) when the mind knows what is referred to when a name is given. Perception is nondiscerning (mtshan mta) when the sense organ in question is fully functional but there is no object. This occurs in states of profound absorption, whether of the Aryas or beings in the state known as the Peak of Existence. It occurs also when the mind is unable to identify and name ob- jects, as in situations where something is encountered but is not recognized because the mind has no prior knowledge of it. This is the common experi- ence of children, who are gradually building up a knowledge of their environ- ment. Conversely, mental perception is also nondiscerning when (again, through lack of experience) it does not know what is referred to when names are given, as, for example, when an unknown language is heard. (It should be noted that nondiscerning perception does not refer to the mere privation of sensory stimulus, as, for example, when one is in a dark place with one's eyes open or in a soundproof room. In these cases, the senses do in fact have objects----darkness and silence, respectively.) [see KJ, 9-10] 267 For the Prasangikas, the !tun razob batn pa has three aspects: (I) yid rtog sp)'oa k)'i shu pa, discursive mind; (2) ngag gi brjoa pa, verbal expression; and (~) Ius ngag gi 'jug pa, speech and physical acts.

268 In this (Abhidharma) context, the Tibetan terms blo, )'id, and rigs pa are all synonyms (whereas in Dzogchen they have different meanings).

269 The absolute nature is one and indivisible. One cannot speak, for example, of a table and a chair having different absolute natures. 270 If the absolute is beyond the intellect, how can it be realized by beings? In answer to this, Mipham Rinpoche says that the absolute truth can be approximately understood by the (ordinary) mind. It can be the object of intellect, as it were, on a provisional and temporary basis. In this case, the absolute truth is described negatively (apophatically) as a nonaffirming nega- tion (med dgag). This refers to rnam gcod, a process of exclusion, a logical analysis in which the existence of an object is searched for and found to be absent, so that absence or "nonfinding" (regarded as its ultimate condition) is the object of the intellect. It is only in this sense that the absolute can be understood by the ordinary mind. However, in the terms of the yogic experi- ence of genuine realization of the absolute, which is utterly beyond the divi- sion into subject and object, the intellect is transcended with the result that the absolute cannot be- said to be its object. This discovered state is an e-xpe-rience- of the- absolute- that can only be de-scribed as an affirming ne-gative- (ma yin dgag). It is not a mere nothingness, a mere "nonfinding"; it is the manifestation of the fundamental nature of the mind, even though this is totally be-yond conception and de-scription. To deny this last point would be- tantamount to saying that ultimate realization, buddhahood, is itself a mere vacuIty. 271 Se-e Khe-nchen Kunzang Pelden, The NtCtar oj Manjushri's SpetCh, p. 315. 272 In other words, fire arises from the presence of fuel and the act of ignition, wate-r is the combination of hydrogen and oxygen, and so on. 273 In other words, argume-nts that are driving at the ultimate nature- of the object. 274 Existe-nce- cannot be ascribe-d to them simply on the grounds that they func- tion according to conventional expectations. 275 In othe-r words, they refrain from propounding a theory about conventional phenomena. 276 Of these e-ight, the- first six are nonaffirming ne-gative-s (med dgag); the last two are affirming negative-s (ma )'in dgag). 277 In other words, as long as one is thinking of them at all (with the ordinary intellect), one- cannot but think of them as things separate from the mind; one cannot but be imprisoned in duality. 278 The thre-e- modes (tshul gsum) are- three- criteria that establish the correctness of a syllogism as use-d in traditional Indian logic. See Daniel Perdue, Debatt in Tibetan Buddhism, p. 38ff.

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279 When relative phenomena are subjected to analysis, they are found to be devoid of inherent existence. Their emptiness is established and this is their absolute truth. When, however, emptiness is itself subjected to inquiry, it too becomes a conventionality and is itself found to be empty of inherent exis- tence. Nothing that is made the object of intellectual analysis can be found to have absolute reality. 280 This is the traditional form of the syllogism in Indian logic. 281 Ofcourse, on the absolute level, they deny that the mind exists in an ultimate sense, and the view is thus different from that of the Chittamatra or Yoga- chara school. The position of Shantarakshita and Kamalashila is a synthesis of the Madhyamika and Chittamatra approaches and as such is regarded as the last great development in the history of Buddhist philosophy in India. 282 As in the case of Buddhapalita and Chandrakirti among the Prasangika Madhyamikas. The founder of a school (shing rta srol 'b;,ta, the maker of the chariot way) is considered to be not the master who first expressed a given idea, but the one who elaborated it into a fully fledged system. Thus, although Buddhapalita was the first to identify the Consequence (prasanga) as the method best expressive of Nagarjuna's intention, it was Chandrakirti who brought this insight into focus and organized it into a complete philosophical statement. 283 The point is that, while Prasangika is acknowledged as the supreme view, the Svatantrika approach is important as a preparation and propaedeutic and is therefore extremely valuable. This appreciation of Svatantrika is characteristic of the Nyingmapa school, for Shantarakshita was one of the founding fathers of the Tibetan tradition. 284 The meaning of this is that if, having refuted "true existence," we are left with phenomena untouched, as it were, we have not got very far in dealing with our cravings. 285 This would surely be more effective than trying to enter the dreamer's dream in order either to save him from what he is dreaming about or telling him, "You are only dreaming." 286 Unless and until we are made to see that self (ego) is unreal and purely imagined, the apprehension of, or clinging to, self cannot be dissipated. The only way that the man in the example can overcome his fear of the snake is to be shown that there is no snake there, but only a heap of rope. Without this, it is impossible for him simply to stop being afraid. 287 It is important to realize that the person in the sense of a sentient (e.g., human) being is not the same thing as the "personal self," which here corre- sponds to the subjective experience of "ego," of being "I." It is from the point of view of this subjective self that all other things, including other people as well as one's own psychophysical constituents, are regarded as phe- nomena.

288 The inherent~1 existent ego and phenomena are purely imaginary. On the relative level, there is only a "person" and "phenomena," which are nothing but imputations projected onto the appropriate constituents, and the latter are, of course, transitory phenomena. In other words, although "clinging to self" is real enough, the object of clinging (an inherently existent self) is a mere figment, as nonexistent as the apparent snake.

289 That is, the person and phenomena simply as they appear in common experi- ence, but which are not inherently existent. 290 Clinging to the personal self constitutes the "emotional veil," so called be- cause all the defiled emotions arise from attachment to "I" and "mine." Cling- ing to the phenomenal self constitutes the "cognitive veil." This refers to clinging to the real existence of subject, object, and action, which thus ob- scures omniscience. 291 Real existence, angos po: all that appears as having origin, duration, and cessa- tion. See Khenchen Kunzang Pelden, The Nectar ofManjushri's Speech, p. 330: "In this context, 'things' are explained as referring to conventionalities validly perceived through sight, hearing, or the mind. And here, 'sight' refers to sense perceptions generally; 'hearing' refers to reports from other sources; and 'mind' refers to the process of inference." 292 In other words, emptiness is not a predicate. It cannot be ascribed to phenom- ena, which somehow retain their supposedly independent status irrespective of the ascription. 293 These four alternatives refer to specific positions taken in Indian philosophy with regard to the problem of causality and which the Madhyamika subjects to criticism and explodes. The first, namely, the view that causes and effects are manifestations of a single substance, is the position of the Samkhya school. The second view, that causes and effects are of a different nature, is the position taken by the lower schools o f Buddhism (including the Svatantri- kas) and which the Prasangikas show to be just as problematic as the first view. The third position, which is an attempt to combine the positions of views one and two, is characteristic of the Jaina school (and of Hegel in the West), while the fourth position, which amounts to a rejection of causality altogether, is the standpoint of the Charvaka or materialist skeptics. 294 The whole language of causality implies difference and cannot be accounted for by a theory of identity in which the effect is merely the self-expression of the cause. In other words, as the text shows, an insistence on the identity of cause and effect cannot be combined with talk about causality, for this neces- sarily involves distinctions between the two terms of the process. Causality is in effect abandoned. 295 In other words, it is impossible to establish a link between producer and product.

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296 To abandon causality altogether amounts to the belief that the universe is in chaos. This being so, there is no way to account for the manifest order visible in the phenomenal world. It also stultifies all human endeavor in which ac- tions are undertaken with a view to obtaining certain results, including the attempt to communicate a theory of causeless origination. Thus, even if a theory of pure randomness is propounded, the fact is that no sane person, including the formulator of such a position, ever lives by it. 297 The Sevenfold Reasoning is expounded at length in the sixth chapter of the Maahyamakavatara of Chandrakirti. 298 Some of these qualities may be practiced by Bodhisattvas on the path of learn- ing. They come to full fruition, however, only in the state of buddhahood. 299 In this context, freedom is understood as a state of mind totally divested of the obscurations that block the subsequently listed realizations. 300 See Khenchen Kunzang Pelden, Tht Nutar of Manjushri's Spuch, p. 382: ". . . all phenomena, which appear to exist in the manner of cause, result, and nature, are the three doors of liberation. The examination of causes shows that they are (I) devoid of all conceptual characteristics [in other words there are no causesJ. As regards the nature of phenomena, analysis shows that this is (2) emptiness. And as for the results, analysis reveals that they are (3) beyond expectancy."