Glossary

Glossary
both to exist and not to exist; and they cannot be said neither to exist nor not to exist.

ABSOLUTE TRUTH, don dam bdtn pa. The ultimate nature of the mind and the true status of all phenomena, the state beyond all conceptual constructs which can be known only by primordial wisdom and in a manner that transcends duality. Thus defined, this is the absolute truth "in-itself" (rnam grangs ma yin pa'i don dam), which is ineffable. This is different from the likeness or similitude of the absolute truth that is experienced or known as one approaches it through the avenues ofrational analysis and meditation on the absence oforigin and so on. For here one is still within the sphere of the relative truth. Nevertheless, since this is the authentic method of progressing toward a direct realization of the absolute and is in accord with it, it is called the "approximate" absolute (rnam grangs pa'i don dam) or "concordant" absolute (mthun pa'i don dam). ABSOLUTE WISDOM, don lJ,i )'t shts. Primordial knowledge, divested of the dualistic mental activity characteristic of the ordinary mind, which "sees" (nondualisti- cally) the ultimate reality or absolute truth. ABSORPTION OF CESSATION, gog pa'i sn)'oms Jug. According to the Mahayana pre- sentation, this is the absorption practiced by the Shravakas and Pratyekabud- dhas as a means of gaining contentment in the course of their present existence. It involves the cessation of the sense consciousnesses and the defiled emotional

consciousness. Bodhisattvas also enter this absorption, not, however, as an end in itself, but as a method of training in concentration.

ABSORPTION OF NONPERCEPTION, 'du shes med pa'i m)'oms Jug. The absorption experienced by the insensate gods of the form realm and the gods of the formless realms. In this absorption, the sense consciousnesses are arrested al- though the defiled emotional consciousness (nyon yid) continues to function. ACCOMPLISHMENT, dngos grub. Accomplishment is described as either supreme or ordinary. Supreme accomplishment is the attainment of buddhahood. "Com- mon or ordinary accomplishments" are the miraculous powers acquired in the course of spiritual training. The attainment of these powers, which are similar in kind to those acquired by the practitioners of some non-Buddhist traditions, are not regarded as ends in themselves. When they arise, however, they are taken as signs of progress on the path and are employed for the benefit of the teachings and disciples. ACCUMULATE AN ACTION, las gsogs pa. To perform an action or karma. Actions leave traces in the alaya and will subsequently fructify in the sense of bringing fonh experiential effects. ACHARYA, Skt., slob dpon. Teacher, the equivalent of spiritual master or lama. ADVENTITIOUS VEIL OR STAIN, glo bur g)'i dri mao Impermanent emotional and cognitive obscurations that afflict the mind but which, not being intrinsic to its nature, can be removed from it. See Two obscurations; Twofold purity. AFFIRMING NEGATIVE, ma yin dgag. An affirming negative is a negation in which the possibility of another (positive) value is implied. For example, in the state- ment "It isn't a cat that is on the roof," the presence of a cat is denied, but in such a way as to suggest that something else is there. Compare this with a nonaffirming negative (med dgag), which simply negates without any further implication, for example, in the statement "There is nothing on the roof." AFFLICTIONS, n)'on mongs pa, Skt. klesha. Mental factors that produce states of mental torment both immediately and in the long term. The five principal kleshas, which are sometimes called poisons, are attachment, hatred, ignorance, envy, and pride. AGG REGATES, phung po. See Skandhas. AKANISHTA, Skt., 'og min. In general, the highest of all buddhafields, the place where, according to Vajrayana, Bodhisattvas attain final buddhahood. There are, in fact, six levels of Akanishta, ranging from the highest heaven of the form realm up to the ultimate pure land of the Dharmakaya. ALA YA, Skt., kun gzhi, lit. the ground-of-alI. According to the Mahayana, this is the fundamental and indeterminate level of the mind, in which karmic imprints are stored. 492 GLOSSARY

ALL-CONCEALING TRUTH. Stt Relative truth.

AMRITA, Skt., bdud rtsi, lit. the ambrosia that overcomes the Demon of Death. The draft of immortality and symbol of wisdom. ANCIENT TRANSLATION SCHOOL, gsang sngags snga g)'ur. Referred to also as the Nyingma or Ancient school, the original tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. Its adherents study and practice the tantras (and their related teachings) that were translated in the first period between the introduction of the Buddhadharma to Tibet in the eighth century and the period of New Translation inaugurated by Rinchen Zangpo (958-1051). ANUYOGA. The second of the inner tantras, according to the system of nine vehicles used in the Nyingma tradition. Anuyoga emphasizes the perfection stage of tantric practice, which consists of meditation on emptiness, as well as the subtle channels, energies, and essence of the physical body. ApPROACH, ACCOMPLISHMENT, AND ACTIV A TION, bsn)'en pa, grub pa, las sbyor. Three consecutive stages in the practice of a sadhana. In the first stage the practitioner becomes familiar with the figure and mandala of the meditational deity. In the second stage, the deity is "accomplished," and in the third, differ- ent enlightened activities are practiced. ARHAT, Skt., dgra bcom pa, lit. "Foe Destroyer." One who has vanquished the enemies of afflictive emotion and realized the nonexistence of the personal self, and who is thus forever free from the sufferings of samsara. Arhatship is the goal of the teachings of the Root Vehicle, the Shravakayana or Hinayana. Etymologically, the Sanskrit term can also be interpreted as "worthy one." ARYA, Skt., 'phags pa. Sublime or noble one, one who has transcended samsaric existence. There are four classes of sublime beings: Arhats, Pratyekabuddhas, Bodhisattvas, and Buddhas. ARYADEVA, 'phags pa lha. The direct disciple and "heart son" of Nagarjuna. He was a powerful advocate of Nagarjuna's teaching later to be known as the Madhyamika. He probably lived at the tum of the second and third centuries C.E. H is most celebrated work is the Catuhshatakashastra-karika, The Four Hundred Vtrses on the Middle Wa)'. ASANGA, thog med, c. 350 C.E., a major figure in Mahayana Buddhism; the cofounder, with his brother Vasubandhu, of the Yogachara philosophy. According to tra- dition, he received from the Bodhisattva Maitreya the famous Five Teachings (byams pa'i chos Inga) in which the views of Madhyamika and Yogachara are both expounded. He is the source of the Mahayana lineage of Vast Activities (rgya chen SJ'.)'od pa), which complements the lineage of the Profound View (zab mo'i Ita ba) stemming from N agarjuna and Manjushri. ASHVAGHOSHA, rta dbyangs. Originally a Hindu scholar who converted to Maha- yana Buddhism under the influence of Aryadeva. He is sometimes identified GLOSSARY 493

with the master Shura (dpa' bo). A great poet, as imponant in the history of Sanskrit literature as in the history of Buddhism, he is celebrated as the author of a celebrated account of the Buddha's life, the Buddhacharita.

ASPIRATIONAL PRACTICE, mos spyod k)'i sa. All practice prior to the attainment of the path of seeing, in which ultimate reality is perceived directly, is regarded as being of the nature of aspiration or interest. ASURA, Skt., lha min, demigod or "Titan." One of six classes of beings in samsara. The asuras are usually considered to be similar to the gods, with whom they are sometimes classified. Their dominant emotional characteristic is envy, and they are constantly at war with the gods, of whom they are jealous. ATI, ATIYOGA. The last and highest of the inner tantras, the summit of the system of nine vehicles according to the Nyingma classification; a synonym of Dzogchen (rdzogs pa chen po), the Great Perfection. ATISHA, jo bo rje. Also known as Dipamkarashrijnana (982-1054), abbot of the Indian monastic university of Vikramashila. Philosophically, he is considered to be Prasangika Madhyamika in the school of Chandrakirti, although he also upheld the teachings of the Yogachara Madhyamika. He came to Tibet at the invitation of the king Yeshe 0 to restore the Buddhadharma after its persecu- tion by Langdarma. He introduced there the Mind Training teachings (blo 'byongs), which he received from his teacher Suvarnadvipa Dharmakini and which are a synthesis of the bodhichitta traditions of Nagarjuna and Asanga. He was also a master of the tantra teachings. His main disciple and successor was the upasaka DromtOn ('brom ston), who founded the Kadampa school and built the monastery of Reting (rwa sgreng). Atisha died at Nyethang in Tibet in 1°54· ATTACHMENT AND IMPEDIMENT, chags thogs. Set Two obscurations. AVALOKITESHVARA, Skt., sp)'an ras gzigs. The "Lord who Sees," name of the Bo- dhisattva who embodies the speech and compassion of all the Buddhas; the Sambhogakaya emanation of the Buddha Amitabha; sometimes referred to as Lokeshvara, the Lord of the World. AYATANA, Skt., sk)'e mched. Sometimes translated as "sense fields." The "six inner ayatanas" refer exclusively to the sense organs; the "twelve ayatanas" comprise these six plus the "six outer ayatanas," which are the corresponding sense ob- jects. (The outer and inner ayatanas of the mind are the mental sense organ and mental objects. Here, the mental "organ" is the moment of consciousness immediately preceding the moment in which the mental object is perceived.) From the interaction of the six sense organs and their six objects, the six consciousnesses are engendered. BARDO, bar do. An intermediary state. This term most often refers to the state between death and subsequent rebinh. In fact, human experience encompasses 494 GLOSSARY

six types of bardo: the bardo of the present life (rang bzhin sk)'t gnas bar ao), the bardo of meditation (bsam gtan gyi bar ao), the bardo of dream (rmi lam g)'i bar ao), the bardo of dying ('chi ka'i bar ao), the luminous bardo of ultimate reality (chos n)'ia bar ao), and the bardo of becoming (sr;a pa'i bar ao). The first three bardos unfold in the course of life. The second three refer to the death and rebinh process which terminates at conception at the beginning of the subse- quent eXistence.

BEINGS OF GREAT SCOPE, skyts bu chen po. Practitioners of the Mahayana teachings who, out of compassion, aspire to buddhahood in order to help beings in the immediate term and to lead them ultimately to enlightenment. BEINGS OF LESSER SCOPE, skyts bu chung ngu. Beings who aspire to happiness in the human and divine realms and who, in order to gain it, consciously practice pure ethics according to the karmic law of cause and effect. BEINGS OF MIDDLE SCOPE, sk)'tS bu 'bring. Practitioners of the Hinayana teachings who aspire to liberation from the cycle of existences. BEZOAR, gi wang. A concretion found in the stomachs or entrails of certain animals and which is endowed with medicinal propenies. BHAGAVAN, bcom /Jan 'aas. An epithet of the Buddha sometimes translated as the Blessed One or the Blessed Lord. The title can be analyzed etymologically as "the one who has vanquished (bcom) the four demons, who possesses (/Jan) all qualities and who is beyond ('aas) samsara and nirvana." BHAvAVIVEKA, ltgs /Jan 'b.>'ta. An important fifth-century master of the Madhya- mika teachings and initiator of the Svatantrika school. Set also Svatantrika. BHIKSHU, Skt., agt slong. A fully ordained Buddhist monk. BHUMI, Skt., sa. Set Ground. BHUTICHANDRA. Disciple of Shakya Shri (thineenth century) and exponent of the three vows. BODHICHARYAVATARA, spyoa Jug. Shantideva's famous text, expounding the prac- tice of the Bodhisattva path. BODHICHITTA, Skt., byang chub k)'i stms. On the relative level, this is the wish to attain buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings, together with the practice necessary to accomplish this. On the absolute level, it is nondual wisdom, the ultimate nature of the mind and the true status of all phenomena. In certain tantric contexts, bodhichitta refers to the essential physical substance which is the support of the mind. BODHISATTVA, Skt., b.>'ang chub stms apa'. One who through compassion strives to attain the full enlightenment of buddhahood for the sake of all beings. Bodhi- sattvas may be "ordinary" or "noble" depending on whether they have attained the path of seeing and are residing on one of the ten bodhisattva grounds. GLOSSAR Y 495

BODY, sku, Skt. kaya. See Five Bodies.

BRAHMA, Skt., tshangs pa. In the Buddhist tradition, this name refers to the chief divinity residing in the form realm. BRAHMIN, Skt., bram ze. A member o f the priestly caste o f ancient India; this term often indicates hermits and spiritual practitioners. It should be noted that the Buddha rejected the caste system and proclaimed on several occasions that the true Brahmin is not someone so designated through an accident of birth, but one who has thoroughly overcome defilement and attained freedom. Set also Four castes. BUDDHA, sangs rg)'as. The Fully Awakened One, a being who has removed the emotional and cognitive veils and is endowed with all enlightened qualities of realization. BUDDHAFIELD, zhing khams. From a certain point of view, a buddhafield is a sphere or dimension projected and manifested by a Buddha or great Bodhisattva, in which beings may abide and progress toward enlightenment without ever faIl- ing into lower states of existence. However, any place viewed as the pure manifestation of spontaneous wisdom is a buddhafield. BUDDHAGHOSHA. A celebrated founh-century master of the Theravada, contem- porary of Asanga and Vasubandhu. He was the author of the Visuddhimagga, a text greatly revered in Theravada Buddhism as the classic presentation of their tradition. BUDDHAGUHYA, sangs rg)'as gsang ba. A master of Mahayoga and teacher of both Guru Padmasambhava and Vimalamitra. He composed the celebrated Gradual Path of the Magical Net. BUDDHAPALITA, sangs rg)'as sk)longs. Fifth-century master of Madhyamika who first explicitly assetted prasanga or reductio ad absurdum as the appropriate method for Madhyamika disputation, thereby heralding the Prasangika Madhyamika school as later systematized by Chandrakirti. BUTON, bu ston. A renowned scholar (1290-1364) famous for his compilation of the Kangyur and Tengyur, and author of an important Historyl of Dharma. CENTRAL LAND, yul dbus. A land in which the Dharma is taught and practiced, as opposed to the peripheral or barbarous lands, so called because the Buddha's teachings are unknown there. From this standpoint, a country devoid of Dharma will still be termed barbarous, even though it may possess a high level of civilization and technology. CESSATION THROUGH ANALYSIS, so sor brtags pa'i gog pa. The cessation of afflictive emotion brought about by an analytical understanding, or wisdom, that elimi- nates the conditions in which such affliction can occur. The cessation itself is a nirvana (the "small nirvana" of Arhats) and is regarded as an "uncompounded phenomenon." 496 GLOSSARY

CESSATION WITHOUT ANALYSIS. Stt Nonanalytical cessation.

CHAKRA, 'khor 10, lit. wheel. These are centers of the psychophysical wind energy located at the different points on the central channel, from which smaller channels radiate to the rest of the body. Depending on the teachings and practice in question, their number varies from four to six. CHAKRAVARTIN, Skt., 'khor 10 sg)'ur ba'i rg)'al po. A universal monarch, the name given to a special kind of exalted being who has dominion over a greater or lesser part of the three-thousandfold universe. According to traditional cosmol- ogy, such beings appear only when the human life span surpasses eighty thou- sand years. By analogy, the word is also used as a title for a great king. CHANDRAGOMIN, zla ba. An Indian lay scholar and contemporary of Chandrakirti. He was associated with the university of Nalanda and was widely reputed for his immense learning in the Mahayana teachings and all kinds of secular knowl- edge, being, among other things, a renowned grammarian. He also practiced the tantras and attained high realization. CHANDRAKIRTI, zla bagrags pa. A sixth-century Indian master and author of unpar- alleled dialectical skill. He followed the Madhayamika tradition of Nagarjuna and reaffirmed the prasangika standpoint of Buddhapalita, against Bhavaviveka, as the supreme philosophical position of the Mahayana. He is thus regarded as the systematizer and founder of the Prasangika Madhyamika school. CHANNELS, ENERGIES, AND ESSENCE DROPS, rtsa rlung thig It, Skt. nadi, prana, bindu. The subtle channels, wind energies, and essences, brought under control in the practice of Anuyoga. CHARVAKAS, rgyang 'phtn pa. Members of an ancient Indian philosophical school professing metaphysical nihilism. The Charvakas denied causality, the law of karma, and the existence of past and future lives. C HITTAMATRINS, snns tsam pa, lit. the upholders of "mind-only." Followers of the Chittamatra (also called the Yogachara) philosophy of the Mahayana, which assens the self-cognizing mind as the ultimate reality and identifies shunyata, or emptiness, as the absence of the subject-object dualism that overspreads and obscures the underlying pure consciousness. The Chittamatra or Yogachara school was founded by Asanga and his brother Vasubandhu (fourth century), who base themselves on the scriptures of the third turning of the Dharma wheel, such as the Sanahinirmochana-sutra. CHO, gcoa, lit. cutting. A meditative and ritual practice, based on the prajnapara- mita, involving a visualization in which the physical body is offered as food to evil or dangerous spirits, the purpose being to destroy or "cut" the four demons within. Cho was introduced to Tibet by the Indian master Padampa Sangye and his Tibetan disciple the yogini Machig Labdron. GLOSSARY 497

CLEAR LIGHT, 'od gsal. The name of the third level in the second samadhi of the form realm.

COGNITIVE OBSCURATIONS, shts sgrib. Dualistic thought processes that apprehend subject, object, and action as being truly existent and which thus act as obstruc- tions to the mind's omniscience. COMPOUNDED PHENOMENON, 'dus h)'as. A phenomenon belonging to the relative level, so called because it appears to arise, abide, and eventually cease. CONCEIVED OBJECT, zhtn yuL A technical term in Buddhist logic, used to refer to objects of the conceptual consciousness that identifies and names things. It thus refers to sense objects as apprehended by this consciousness, but also to imaginary objects that are mistakenly assumed to exist (e.g., the "self"). CONQUEROR, rgyal ba, Skt. jina. An epithet of the Buddha. D AKA, Skt., dpa' bo, lit. hero. A name given to male Bodhisattvas in the tantras; the male equivalent of a dakini. DAKINI, Skt., mkha' 'dro rna, lit. moving through space. The representation of wisdom in female form. There are several levels of dakini: wisdom dakinis, who have complete realization, and worldly dakinis, who possess various spiri- tual powers. The word is also used as a title for great women teachers and as a respectful form o f address to the wives o f spiritual masters. DEFEAT, pham pa. A type of transgression of the precepts, a misdemeanor that brings about a complete destruction of the vow. DEFILED EMOTION AL CONSCIOUSN ESS, nyon yid. Stt Eight consciousnesses. DEFILED EMOTIONS, nyon mongs pa. Skt. klesha. Stt Afflictions. DEFILEMENTS, sgrib pa. Stt Obscurations. DEMON, bdud, Skt. mara. This term is used to designate either a malevolent spirit or, symbolically, a negative force or obstacle on the path. The Four Demons (bdud bzhQ are of the latter kind. The Demon of the Aggregates refers to the five skandhas (body, feeling, perception, conditioning factors, and conscious- ness), as described in Buddhist teaching, which form the basis of suffering in samsara. The Demon of the Defilements refers to the afflictive emotions, which provoke suffering. The Demon of Death refers not only to death itself but to the momentary transience of all phenomena, the nature of which is suffering. The Demon Child of the Gods refers to mental wandering and the attachment to phenomena apprehended as truly existent. DEPENDENT ARISING, rIm 'brtl bcugnyis. A fundamental element o f Buddhist teach- ing according to which phenomena are understood not as discretely existent entities, but as the coincidence of interdependent conditions. The classic for- 498 GLOSSARY

mulation of this doctrine is found in the teaching on the twelve links of dependent arising, which, together with the four noble truths, constitutes the teachings of the first turning of the wheel of Dharma. This fundamental expo- sition, given by the Buddha at Sarnath shortly after his enlightenment, expresses the doctrines of the Hinayana. The doctrine of interdependence is, however, pervasive and is formulated variously according to different levels of teaching. Most importantly, it was interpreted by Nagarjuna as the essential meaning of shunyata, or emptiness, the ultimate nature of phenomena.

DESIRE REALM, 'dod khams. The six samsaric states of hell beings, pretas, animals, humans, asuras, and the six classes of the lower gods. The six divine spheres are called: (I) the heaven of the Four Great Kings (rg)'al chen rigs bzhi); (2) the heaven of the Thirty-three (sum bcu rtsa gsum); (3) Free of Conflict ('thab bral); (4) Joyous Realm (dga' /Jan); (5) Enjoying Magical Creations ('phrul dga'); and (6) Mastery over Magical Creations of Others (gzhan 'phrul dbang byed). The desire realm is so called because the beings inhabiting it are prey to Intense emotion and crave happiness based on the pleasures of the senses. DHARANI, Skt., gzungs. A verbal formula, often quite long, blessed by a Buddha or a Bodhisattva, similar to the mantras of the Vajrayana but found also in the sutra tradition. The term is also used to refer to the accomplishment of unfail- . Ing memory. DHARMA, Skt., chos. This Sanskrit term is the normal word used to indicate the Doctrine of the Buddha. In fact the term has ten meanings (see note 82). The Dharma of transmission refers to the corpus of verbal teachings, whether oral or written. The Dharma of realization refers to the spiritual qualities resulting from the practice of these teachings. DHARMADHATU, Skt., chos dt,'ings. The expanse of ultimate reality, emptiness. DHARMAKAYA, Skt., chos sku. See Five Bodies. DHARMAPALAS, Skt., chos sk)'ong. Protectors of the teachings. These are either enlightened beings or spirits and gods who have been subjugated by great masters and bound under oath to guard the teachings. Their task is to protect the Doctrine, its upholders, and its practitioners. DHARMATA, Skt., chos n)'id. Suchness, the ultimate nature of phenomena- emptlness. DHATu, Skt., khams bco brg),ad. A "sphere" of experience involving a sense power, its object, and the consciousness arising from their conjunction. Although a dhatu in this sense may be considered as a composite of these three elements, in fact each of these elements is referred to as a dhatu in its own right. Thus, the six senses, six objects, and six corresponding consciousnesses may be re- ferred to as the eighteen dhatus, as expounded in the Abhidharma. GLOSSAR Y 499

DIAMOND VEHICLE. Stt Vajrayana.

DOMINANT CONDITION, baag po'i rk),tn. One of the four conditions systematized by Vasubandhu in his Abhiaharmakosha to explain the functioning of causality. The other three are the causal condition (rgyu'i rk),tn), the immediately preced- ing condition (at ma thag pa'i rk),tn), and the objective condition (amigs pa'i rk),tn). DOWNFALL, ltung ba. A transgression of one of the precepts, which, if not properly confessed and repaired, will result in rebirth in the lower realms. DUALITY, DUALISTIC PERCEPTION, gn)'is 'azin, gzung 'azin. The perception of ordi- nary beings. The apprehension of phenomena in terms of subject and object, and the belief in their true existence. EFFECTS SIMILAR TO THE CAUSE, rg)'u mthun g),i 'bras bu. Karmic effects that in some way resemble the kind of actions that give rise to them. These may be "active," in the sense of being a spontaneous inclination to repeat the former action, or "passive," in the sense of being experiences that mirror the quality of the previous action. The former may be exemplified by children who take a natural pleasure in killing insects-a predisposition acquired through having indulged in such activity in previous existences. An instance of the latter would be the experience of poor health and short life, the passive result of killing. EIGHT ANCILLARY CONTINENTS, gling phran brg)'aa. Stt Four continents. EIGHT CLOSE SONS, n)'t ba'i sras brgyaa. The eight main Bodhisattvas in the retinue of Buddha Shakyamuni. They are: Akashagarbha, Avalokiteshvara, Kshitigar- bha, Maitreya, Manjushri, Samantabhadra, Sarvanivaranavishkambhin, and Vajrapani. Symbolically they represent the pure state of the eight conscious- nesses. EIGHT CONDITIONS THAT LACK FREEDOM TO PRACTICE THE DHARMA, mi aal ba brgyad. Eight existential states in which spiritual growth is either impossible or severely hampered. These are the conditions of hell beings, pretas, animals, long-lived gods without perception, the inhabitants of barbarous lands, people who are severely handicapped physically and mentally, and people who espouse false beliefs or who live in a kalpa in which no Buddha has appeared. EIGHT CONSCIOUSN ESSES, tshogs brgyad, lit. eight gatherings. A way o f classifying the functions of the mind according to the Chittamatra school, also used in the Vajrayana. The eight types of consciousness are the five sense consciousnesses followed by the mental consciousness, the defiled emotional consciousness of conceiving "I," and the consciousness of the alaya, the fundamental level of the mind. EIGHT EXTREMES, mtha' brg)'aa. Phenomena are beyond the extremes of cessation and origin; they are not annihilated and they are not permanent; they do not come and they do not go; they are not distinct and they are not one. Parallel with this, they are like dreams, illusions, mirages, reflections, optical illusions, 500 GLOSSARY

echoes, castles in the clouds, and magical displays. These eight similes illustrate the indivisibility of the absolute and relative truths.

EIGHT TYPES OF SUFFERING, sdug bsngal brg),ad. A classification o f sufferings partic- ularly associated with the human condition. These are birth, old age, sickness, death, and the sufferings of encountering enemies, of being separated from loved ones, of not having what one wants, and of having to put up with what one does not want. EIGHT WORLDLY CONCERNS, Jig rUn chos brgyad. The habitual preoccupations that continually and inevitably afflict beings until they attain the path of seeing and completely transcend the ego. They are concern for gain and loss, comfort and discomfort, good and evil reputation, and praise and blame. EIGHTFOLD NOBLE PATH, 'phags pa'i lam gyi )'an lag brgyad. Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. These constitute the scheme of moral and spiritual disciplines leading to enlightenment expounded by the Buddha in the course of his teaching on the four noble truths at Sarnath. As such, they form the backbone of the fundamental practice of Buddhism. EMPOWERMENT, dbang, Skt. abhisheka. Empowerment or initiation. O f these two terms, "initiation," though in many ways unsatisfactory, has the advantage of indicating that it is the point of entry into tantric practice. On the other hand, "empowerment" is closer to the Tibetan word and refers to the transference of wisdom power, from the master to disciples, authorizing and enabling them to engage in the practice and reap its fruit. In general, there are four levels of tantric empowerment. The first is the Vase Empowerment, which purifies the defilements and obscurations associated with the body, grants the blessings of the vajra body, authorizes the disciples to practice the yogas of the generation stage, and enables them to attain the Nirmanakaya. The second is the Secret Empowerment. This purifies the defilements and obscurations of the speech faculty, grants the blessings of vajra speech, authorizes disciples to practice the yogas of the perfection stage, and enables them to attain the Sambhogakaya. The third empowerment is the Wisdom Empowerment. This purifies the de- filements and obscurations associated with the mind, grants the blessings of the vajra mind, authorizes disciples to practice the yogas of the "Skillful Path," and enables them to attain the Dharmakaya. The final empowerment, which is often simply referred to as the Fourth Initiation, is the Precious Word Empowerment. This purifies the defilements of body, speech, and mind and all karmic and cognitive obscurations; it grants the blessings of primordial wisdom, authorizes disciples to engage in the practice of Dzogchen, and en- ables them to attain the Svabhavikakaya. EMPTINESS, stong pa n),id. Skt. shunyata. The ultimate nature of phenomena (namely, their lack of inherent existence) beyond the four ontological extremes. GLOSSARY 501

ENJOYING MAGICAL CREATIONS, 'phrul aga', Skt. Nirmanarati. The fifth divine sphere of the desire realm, in which the gods can magically produce whatever they wish.

ENLIGHTENMENT, byang chub, Skt. bodhi. Stt Nirvana. EPHEMERAL HELLS, n)'i tshe ba'i am)'al ba. Infernal states, of varying duration, in which beings suffer due to the fact that they identify as their bodies physical objects such as logs of wood or stoves and suffer the effects of the use to which these objects are put (logs being burned, stoves being heated, doors being slammed, etc.). ETERNALISM, rtag par Ita ba. One of two "extreme" views (the other being nihil- ism); the belief in eternally existing entities such as a divine creator or the soul. EVIL FORCE, baua. Stt Demon. EXAMPLE WISDOM, ape'i )'e shes. A foretaste or illustration of the absolute wisdom. Example wisdom is not totally devoid of conceptual mind. EXPEDIENT MEANING, arang aon. Teachings, for example on the four noble truths, the aggregates, dhatus, and so forth, which, insofar as they do not express the ultimate truth, are of provisional validity only. They are nevenheless indispens- able in that their purpose is to lead unrealized beings gradually along the path, bringing them to greater understanding and final accomplishment. EXPOSITORY VEHICLE OF CAUSALITY, rg)'u mtshan nyia kyi theg pa. The paths of the Shravakas, Pratyekabuddhas, and Bodhisattvas. The expository vehicle is so called because (I) it expounds the path that leads to the attainment of the goal and (2) the practitioners of this vehicle work only with the causes that bring fonh-in a direct sense-the result of their panicular path (e.g., arhatship in the case of Shravakas and Pratyekabuddhas) and, indirectly, the final result of buddhahood. In contrast with the expository vehicle of causality, one speaks also of the resultant vehicle. This is so called because here the result of the path (namely, the empty and luminous nature of the mind) is utilized and practiced as the path. The resultant vehicle is another name for the Vajrayana. FIELD OF BENEFITS, phan 'aogs pa'i gzhi. Beings, such as one's parents, to whom a great debt of gratitude is owed for the kindness they have shown. The field of benefits also includes beings who are natural objects of compassion, such as the sick, the old, and the unprotected. All actions directed to them will bring fonh a powerful result. FIELD OF EXALTED QUALITIES, )'on tan gyi gzhi. The Three Jewels, spiritual masters, abbots, and so forth, who possess extraordinary spiritual qualities of elimina- tion and realization and in respect of whom actions bring fonh powerful karmic effects. 502 GLOSSARY

FIELD OF MERIT, tshogs zhing. A technical term referring to the Three Jewels, the guru, and so forth, considered as proper objects of reverence and offering, whereby the vast accumulation of merit is generated.

FIVE BODIES, sku lnga, Skt. kaya. According to the teachings of the Mahayana, the transcendent reality of perfect buddhahood is described in terms of two, three, four, or five bodies, or kayas. The two bodies, in the first case, are the Dharma- kaya, the Body of Truth, and the Rupakaya, the Body of Form. The Dharma- kaya is the absolute or "emptiness" aspect of buddhahood. The Rupakaya is subdivided (thus giving rise to the three bodies mentioned above) into the Sambhogakaya, the Body of Perfect Enjoyment, and the Nirmanakaya, the Body of Manifestation. The Sambhogakaya, or the spontaneous clarity aspect of buddhahood, is perceptible only to beings of extremely high realization. The N irmanakaya, the compassionate aspect, is perceptible to ordinary beings and appears in the world most often, though not necessarily, in human form. The system of four bodies consists of the three just referred to together with the Svabhavikakaya, or Body of Suchness, which refers to the union of the previous three. Occasionally there is mention of five bodies: the three kayas together with the immutable Diamond or Vajra Body (the indestructible aspect of buddhahood) and the Body of Complete Enlightenment (representing the aspect of enlightened qualities). FIVE CERTAINTIES, ngts pa lnga. Stt Five excellences. FIVE-ELEMENT STRUCTURE, chings chtn po lnga. In his YJ'akh)'a)'ukti, Vasubandhu describes a five-element structure around which treatises are to be composed. This comprises the purpose of the treatise (dgos pa), the correct arrangement of its parts (mtshams sbyor), the explanation itself (tshig don), its overall meaning (bsdus don), and responses to possible objections ('gallan). FIVE ELEMENTS, 'h)'ung ba lnga. Earth, water, fire, and wind or air, as principles of solidity, liquidity, heat and movement, and ether or space. FIVE EXCELLENCES, phun sum tshogs pa lnga. The five perfections of place, teacher, retinue, time, and teaching. According to the Shravakayana, this refers to the Buddha Shakyamuni and the various moments and geographical locations in which he expounded the Dharma to his disciples. According to the Mahayana, this refers to the Sambhogakaya Buddhas such as Vairochana, expounding the teachings of the Great Vehicle in various buddhafields, in the eternal present beyond time, to a vast retinue of Bodhisattvas residing on the tenth ground. In the latter case, the five excellences are also called the "five certainties" (ngts pa lnga). FIVE IMPORTANT HEADINGS, rtsis mgo yan lag lnga. A method of textual analysis adopted by the panditas of Nalanda and used by Tibetan scholars. It consists of a sequence of five topics: the author of the treatise (mdzad pa po), its scriptural GLOSSARY 503

source (lung gang nas btus), its general philosophical tendency (ph)'ogs gang au gtogs), its condensed meaning (bsaus aon), and its purpose (agos (httl).

FIVE LINEAGES, rigs lnga. The five lineages of Tathagata, vajra, jewel, lotus, and action, representing five aspects of buddhahood. Each of them is presided over by a Dhyani Buddha: Vairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi, respectively. FIVE PATHS, lam lnga. Skt. panchamarga. Sit Path. FIVE SCIENCES, rig pa'i gnas lnga. The five disciplines of which a Buddhist master must have mastery. They are medicine, philology, logic, philosophy, and "arts and crafts." FIVE SINS OF IMMEDIATE EFFECT, mtshams mta lnga. These are: to kill one's father, to kill one's mother, to kill an Arhat, to attack and injure a Buddha so as to draw blood, and to cause a schism in the Sangha. These actions are of immedi- ate effect because they are so grave that their strength overrides any other karma and at death the person concerned falls directly into hell without even passing through the bardo state. FIVE SKANDHAS. Stt Skandhas. FIVE WISDOMS, yt shts lnga. The five wisdoms of buddhahood corresponding to the five Dhyani Buddhas or five Buddha families: mirrorlike wisdom (mt long lta bu )'t shes, Vajrasattva: vajra family), wisdom of equality (mnyam n)'ia )'e shts, Ratnasambhava: the jewel family), all-discerning wisdom (so sor rtog pa'i )'t shts, Amitabha: the lotus family), all-accomplishing wisdom (bJ'a ba sgrub pa'i )'t shes, Amoghasiddhi: the action family), and wisdom of dharmadhatu ((hos abJ'ings )'e shts, Vairochana: the Tathagata family). FORM REALM, gzugs khams. The second of the three worlds of existence. It is divided into four levels of samadhi which, all together, are again subdivided into seventeen spheres. These are the heavens of: (I) the Pure (tshangs ris); (2) Priests of Brahma (tshangs pa'i maun na 'aon); (3) Great Pure Ones (tshangs (htn); (4) Dim Light ('oa (hung); (5) Measureless Light (tshaa mea 'oa); (6) Clear Light ('oa gsal); (7) Lesser Virtue (agt (hung); (8) Limitless Virtue (tshaa mta agt), (9) Flourishing Virtue (age rg),as); (10) Cloudless (sprin mta); (II) Merit-Born (bsoa nams sk)'es); (12) Great Fruit (,bras bu (he); (13) Not Greater (mi (he ba); (14) Without Distress (migaung ba); (15) Manifest Richness (g)'a nom snang ba); (16) Good Vision (shin tu mthong ba); (17) Akanishta (the Unsurpassed, '01. min). This realm is characterized by the absence of gross afflictive emotions. Beings in the form realm remain in blissful states of meditative concentration. FORMLESS REALM, gzugs mta khams. The four highest states of samsaric existence. They correspond to the four formless absorptions, that is, the four meditative absorptions devoid of attributes. They are called: (I) Infinite Space (nam mkha' mtha'yas) (2) Infinite Consciousness (rnam shts mtha')'as); (3) Utter Nothingness 504 GLOSSARY

(d yang mtd pa); and (4) Neither Existence nor Nonexistence ()rod min mtd min). They are devoid of location and are characterized by the absence of perception.

FOUR BOUNDLESS ATTITUDES, tshad mtd bzhi. Four highly virtuous states of mind, regarded as immeasurable because they focus on all beings without exception and are productive of boundless merits. They are: love, compassion, sympa- thetic joy, and impartiality. F OUR CASTES, rigs bzhi. The traditional class distinctions of Indian society associ- ated with different psychological types and the kind of work or social function deemed appropriate to them. Over the centuries the caste system developed and is now extremely complex. Buddhist texts refer only to the original four- fold system and repudiate it in the sense of rejecting the idea, still current in Indian society, that such distinctions are immutable and are dictated by the circumstances of birth. The four types or classes are the royal or ruling class (kshatriJra, rg)ral rigs), the priestly class (brahmin, bram Zt rigs), the merchant class (vaish)'a, rjt 'u rigs), and the menial class (shudra, dmangs rigs). FOUR CLASSES OF TANTRA, rg)'ud bzhi. Stt Tantra. FOUR CLOSE MINDFULNESSES, dran pa nytr bzhag bzhi. Mindfulness of the body, feelings, consciousness, and mental objects, as practiced (with respectively dif- ferent objects of focus and attitude) in both the Hinayana and the Mahayana. FOUR CONTINENTS, gling bzhi. The four continents located in the four directions around Mount Meru, constituting a universal system. They are: the semicircu- lar Ius 'phags po, Skt. Videha, in the east; the trapezoidal 'dzam bu gling, Skt. Jambudvipa, in the south; the circular ba lang spyod, Skt. Godaniya, in the west; and the square sgra mi snyan, Skt. Uttarakuru, in the nonh. Respectively, the names of the continents mean: Sublime Body, Land of Rose Apples, Bountiful Cow, and Unpleasant Sound. Each of the four main cosmic continents is accompanied by two subcontinents of the same shape. Human beings inhabit these continents with the exception of Chamara (rnga yab), which is populated by rakshasas, a kind of flesh-eating demon. FOUR DEMONS, bdud bzhi. Stt Demon. FOUR FORMLESS ABSORPTIONS, sn)'oms Jug bzhi. Stt Formless realm. FOUR GENUINE RESTRAINTS, yang dag par spong ba bzhi. These are: (I) the preemptive halting of negativities not yet generated; (2) the rejection of negativities already arisen; (3) the solicitation of positive states not yet present; and (4) the protec- tion from decline of positive states already generated. FOUR GREAT KINGS, rg)'al chtn rigs bzhi. These are the gods who are traditionally considered to be the protectors of the four directions. Their realm is the lowest divine sphere of the desire realm situated on the four terraces or "steps" of Mount Meru. GLOSSARY 505

FOUR KAYAS. Stt Five Bodies.

FOUR RELIANCES, rton pa bzhi. These are: (I) reliance not on the person of the teacher but on the teaching; (2) reliance not on the mere words of the teaching but on its intended meaning; (3) reliance not on the expedient but on the definitive meaning; and (4) reliance not on intellectual understanding but on nonconceptual wisdom that sees the absolute truth directly. FOUR SAMADHIS, bsamgtan bzhi. Four levels of the form realm. Stt Form realm. FOUR TRUTHS, bdtn pa bzhi. The truths of suffering, origin, cessation, and path expounded by the Buddha Shakyamuni in his first teaching following his en- lightenment. These teachings, referred to as the first turning of the Dharma wheel, are the foundation o f the Hinayana and Mahayana teachings. FOUR WAYS OF ATTRACTING DISCIPLES, bsdu ba'i dngos po bzhi. Teachers gather disciples by (I) their generosity; (2) the fact that their teachings are attuned to the minds of their disciples; (3) their ability to introduce disciples to the prac- tice leading to liberation; and (4) the fact that they themselves practice what they preach. GANACHAKRA FEAST, or SACRED FEAST, tshogs. A ritual offering in tantric Bud- dhism in which oblations of food and drink are blessed as the elixir of wisdom and offered to the yidam deity as well as to the mandala of one's own body. GANDHARVA, Skt., dri za. Lit. smell eater. A member of a class of nonhuman beings, said to be nourished on smells and closely associated with music. GARUDA, kh)Iung. A kind of bird, in both Indian and Tibetan tradition. A creature ofgreat size, it hatches already fledged and is able to fly at once. It is therefore used as a symbol of primordial wisdom. G ELUGPA, dgt lugs pa. One of the New Translation schools, founded by Je Tsong- khapa (1357-1419), whose head is the Throne-Holder of Ganden and whose most illustrious member is His Holiness the Dalai Lama. GENERATION AND PERFECTION. The two principal phases of tantric practice. The generation stage (bsk)Itd rim), also referred to as creation stage or develop- ment stage, involves meditation on appearances, sounds, and thoughts as dei- ties, mantras, and wisdom, respectively. The perfection stage (rdzogs rim), also referred to as completion stage, refers to the dissolution of visualized forms into emptiness and the experience of this. It also indicates the meditation on the subtle channels, energies, and essential substances of the body. GODANIY A, ba u,ng SJ'J'od. Stt Four continents. GODS, lha, Skt. deva. According to the Buddhist tradition, a class of beings, supe- rior to humans, who, although not immortal, enjoy immense power, bliss, and longevity. The Tibetan and Sanskrit terms are also used to refer to powerful spirits as well as to the deities visualized in tantric meditation, which are not 506 GLOSSARY

to be understood as "gods" in the ordinary sense of the word. Occasionally, the term is also used in a technical sense to refer to the Buddha or to the guru, as well as, honorifically, to great and powerful kings. The Tibetan usage reflects that of the Sanskrit term, which is rich and elusive in meaning. Originally it seems to have meant "bright" and, later, the "bright ones who give to man." Accordingly, the range of meaning is wide and covers the sun and moon as universal luminaries, human parents who give life and sustenance, and thence to the learned and to spiritual guides who impan knowledge.

GREAT CHARIOT, shing rta chen po. Name of Gyalwa Longchenpa's autocommentary to the MinJ at Rest (sems n),iJ ngalgso), one of the three treatises of the Trilog)' oj Rest(ngalgsoskorgsum), a description ofthe entire path, up to and including the Great Perfection, which is expounded according to the scholarly method ("the great way of the panditas") and according to the experiential method of pith instruction ("the profound way of the yogis"). GREAT FRUIT, 'bras bu chen po. The twelfth level of the form realm corresponding to the highest, but still mundane (i.e., not beyond samsara), level of the founh samadhi. GREAT MADHYAMIKA, Jbu ma chen po. In the Nyingma and Kagyu traditions, the name given to the fusion of the teachings of the second and third turnings of the Dharma wheel. These two turnings are paralleled, respectively, by the ap- proach of N agarjuna, the view that ultimate reality is beyond conceptual for- mulation, and the approach of Asanga, the view that ultimate reality is the buddha nature, the tathagatagarbha, free from all defects and primordially en- dowed with all enlightened qualities. The Great Madhyamika is also referred to as the Yogachara Madhyamika, for it stresses the role of meditation in the realization of ultimate reality, the nature of the mind. Associated with this system is the expression gzhan stong, "emptiness of other," referring to the under- standing that ultimate reality is an emptiness which is a freedom from all factors extraneous to itself. In other words, it is a positive value and not a mere negatlon. GREAT PERFECTION, rJzogs pa chen po, Skt. mahasandhi. The ultimate view of the Nyingma school: the union of primordial purity (ka Jag) and spontaneous presence (/hun grub), in other words, of voidness and awareness. Set also Ati, Atiyoga. GREAT VEHICLE, theg pa chen po, Skt. Mahayana. Set Mahayana. GROUND, sa, Skt. bhumi. Ground or level. In the Mahayana, the ten grounds of bodhisattva realization (so described from the point of view of post-meditation experience only) extend from the path of seeing through the path of meditation and culminate in the attainment of the path of no more learning, which is buddhahood. The first seven grounds are termed impure, because the defiled emotional consciousness (which, turning toward the alaya, is what constantly G LOSSAR Y 507

conceives of "I") is still present in the mind of the yogi, and, even though not active, this results in the perception of a distinction between the observing mind and the object observed (gn),;s snang). On the eighth ground, this defiled consciousness is removed, with the result that the strongest manifestations of this dualistic appearance are dissipated. On the ninth and tenth grounds, even the most subtle traces of this gradually cease. According to the Hinayana, there are eight grounds of realization. According to the Vajrayana, there are thirteen grounds or more.

GROUND OF UTTER JOY. SttPerfect Joy. GROUND, PATH, AND FRUIT, gzh; lam 'bras bu. Each Buddhist tenet system asserts its own approach to reality in terms of ground, path, and fruit. Generally speaking, the ground refers to a specific view of reality, the path comprises the meditation performed within the framework of that view, and the fruit is the final result of the practice. GUHYAGARBHA, gsang ba'; sn),;ng po. The chief Mahayoga tantra of the Nyingma school. GUN APRABHA, )'on tan 'od. A disciple o f V asubandhu and master and exponent o f both the Hinayana and Mahayana teachings. He is celebrated as the great authority on the Vinaya and composed the famous V;naya-sutra. GURU YOGA, Skt., bla rna'; rnal .>'or. A practice consisting of the visualization of the guru (in whichever form), prayers and requests for blessing, the visualized reception of these blessings, and the merging of the mind in the guru's enlight- ened wisdom mind. Guru yoga is the single most important practice of tantric Buddhism. GYURME DORJE, g,'ur mtd rdo rjt, name of Minling Terdag Lingpa (1646-1714). A celebrated tertOn and founder of the Mindroling monastery in central Tibet. He collected the tantras of the long oral lineage of the Nyingma school and all the earlier terma teachings. He was thus instrumental in the preservation of the Nyingma tradition. H ARIBHADRA, stng gt bzang po, a disciple of Shantarakshita and Vairotsana in the late eighth century. He was an exponent of the Yogachara Svatantrika Madhya- mika school. He did much to propagate the teachings of the Prajnaparamita and is well known for his commentary on the same sutra. He was the preceptor o f the Buddhist king Dharmapala and was closely associated with the monastic university of Vikramashila. HEAVEN OF THE PURE, tshangs r;s. The first level of the first samadhi of the form realm. H ERUKA, Skt. A term used to refer to any meditational deity, a symbol of the ultimate nature of the mind. 508 GLOSSARY

H INAYANA, theg aman. The fundamental system of Buddhist thought and practice deriving from the first turning of the wheel of Dharma and centering around the teachings on the four noble truths and the twelvefold chain of dependent arising. In situations where it might be understood in a pejorative sense, Hina- yana (small or low vehicle) is often avoided in favor of Shravakayana (the vehicle of the Shravakas or Hearers). It should in any case be noted that in Tibetan Buddhism, the Hinayana is regarded as an intrinsic part, indeed the foundation, of the teachings and is not disparaged, even though the narrowly Hhinayana motivation," of aiming solely for one's own liberation (as contrasted with the universal attitude o f bodhichitta), is considered incomplete and insuf- ficient. Altogether there were eighteen hinayana schools, of which only one, the Theravada, still exists today, existing mainly in the countries of south Asia.

H OLDER OF THE VAJRA, rao rje 'azin pa. A title given to the holder of the three kinds of discipline or vow. IGNORANCE, ma rig pa, Skt. avidya. In a Buddhist context, ignorance is not mere nescience but mistaken apprehension. It is the incorrect understanding of, or failure to recognize, the ultimate nature of the person and phenomena, and falsely ascribing true existence to them. I NDIVIDU AL LIBERATION, so sor thar pa, Skt. pratimoksha. See Pratimoksha. INDRA, Skt., abang po. Also known as Shakra (brg)'a byin), the supreme god and king of the heaven of the Thirty-three, which is located in the desire realm. Indra is regarded as a protector of the Buddhist doctrine. I NFINITE PURITY, aag pa rab 'b)lams. A technical term referring to the tantric realiza- tion that appearances, sounds, and thoughts are the mandala of the deities, mantras, and primordial wisdom. J AMBUDVIPA, Skt., 'azam bu gling, lit. the land of rose-apples. The southern conti- nent of the four situated around Mount Meru. Jambudvipa is the human world in which we live. JETSUN MILA (1040-1123). The famous disciple of Marpa the Translator. One of Tibet's most revered yogis and poets, who attained buddhahood in the course of a single life. J NANAGARBHA, ye shes m)'ing po. A m a s t e r o f N a l a n d a U n i v e r s i t y a n d t h e o r d a i n i n g abbot of Shantarakshita. He was an exponent of the "upper school" of Svatan- trika Madhyamika and the author of the celebrated Two Truths of the Miaale Way. KAGYUPA, bka' brg)'ua pa. One of the New Translation schools, founded by Marpa the Translator (1012-1099). This school is divided into many subschools, the most well known nowadays being the Karma (or Dhakpo) Kagyu, Drikung Kagyu, Drukpa Kagyu, and Shangpa Kagyu. KALACHAKRA, Jus kyi 'khor 10, lit. wheel of time. One of the main tantras practiced by the New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism. It is celebrated for the GLOSSARY 509

unique cosmological system that it expounds and is closely associated with the hidden realm of Shambhala, the king of which was the first to receive this teaching from the Buddha.

KALPA, bskal pa. A great kalpa is the time period corresponding to a cycle of formation, duration, destruction, and vacuity of a universe (each of these four phases comprising twenty intermediate kalpas). There is also a so-called mea- sureless kalpa (grangs mta bskal pa), which, despite its name, does not refer to an infinite lapse of time but to a specific period defined in the Abhidharma as consisting of ten kalpas. The present (great) kalpa is usually referred to as the Good or Fortunate Kalpa on account of the fact that a thousand universal Buddhas will appear in the course of it. The Buddha Shakyamuni is the fourth in the series. KAMALASHILA, (713-763). The principal disciple of Shantarakshita and an expo- nent with him of the Yogachara Madhyamika school. He was invited to Tibet, where he successfully debated with the Chinese master Hashang Mahayana, thereby definitively establishing the gradual approach of the Indian tradition as normative for Tibetan Buddhism. KARMA, Skt., las. Action, the psychophysical principle of cause and effect accord- ing to which all experiences are the result of previous actions, and all actions are the seeds of future existential situations. Actions resulting in the experience of happiness are defined as vinuous; actions which give rise to suffering are described as nonvinuous. KATYAYANA. An Indian Arhat, a direct disciple of Buddha Shakyamuni. KA YA, Skt., sku. Stt Five Bodies. KINNARA, Skt., mi 'am ci. A mythical creature half-man and half-animal. KRISHNAPA, nag po pa. An Indian master and teacher of Atisha (fl. c. eleventh century). LAMA, bla mao Tibetan term for a highly realized spiritual teacher, the equivalent of the Sanskrit word guru. In colloquial language, however, it is sometimes used as a polite way of addressing a monk. LANGDARMA. Brother of the religious king Ralpachen. When the latter was mur- dered by his Bonpo ministers in the year 906, Langdarma became king. He persecuted Buddhism and almost succeeded in eradicating it, especially in its monastic form, from Tibet. After six years of rule he was assassinated by a Buddhist yogi. LEAGUE, apag tshaa, Skt. yojana. An ancient Indian measurement of distance which according to the Abhidharmakosha corresponds to 4.5 miles or 7.4 kilometers. 510 GLOSSARY

LEVELS OF EXISTENCE, THREE, sa gsum. Stt Three dimensions of existence. LILAVAJRA. Name of a master who transmitted the Mahayoga tantras to Buddha-

guhya and Vimalamitra. LONGCHENPA, klong chtn rab 't,'ams. Kunkhyen Longchen Rabjam (1308-1363), re- garded as the greatest genius of the Nyingma tradition, an incomparable master and author of over two hundred and fifty treatises. He brought together the two main transmissions of Atiyoga, or Dzogchen: the Khandro Nyingthik of Guru Rinpoche and the Virna Nyingthik descended from Vimalamitra. Longchenpa's wide-ranging commentaries cover the whole field of sutra and mantra, in panicular the teachings of Dzogchen, or the Great Perfection, but also such topics as history and literature. Many of his writings are considered to be authentic Mind Termas. O f these the most important are the Four Stctions oj Htart Esstnet teachings (snying thig )'a bzhi), the Stvtn Trtasurts (mJzoJ bJun), and the MinJ at Rtst trilogy (SimS n),id ngal gso). For more details, see Longchen Rabjam, Tht Practiet oj Dzogchtn. LOWER REALMS, ngan song. The hells, the realms of pretas and animals. LUMINOSITY, 'oJ gsaL The clarity or knowing aspect of the mind. Luminosity means practically the same thing as primordial wisdom. MADHYAMIKA, Skt., Jbu ma'i lam. The Middle Way philosophy of shunyata, or emptiness, which avoids the extreme ontological positions of existence and nonexistence. It was first propounded by the Indian master Nagarjuna in the latter half of the second century C.E. and is still upheld in Tibetan Buddhism as the supreme philosophical view. MAHAYANA, thtgpa chtn po. The Great Vehicle, the tradition of Buddhism practiced mostly in the countries of northern Asia: China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Tibet, and the Himalayan regions. The characteristic of Mahayana is the pro- found view of the emptiness of the ego and of all phenomena, coupled with universal compassion and the desire to deliver all beings from suffering and its causes. To this purpose, the goal of the Mahayana is the attainment of the supreme enlightenment of buddhahood, and the path consists of the practice of the six paramitas. On the philosophical level, the Mahayana comprises two principal schools, Madhyamika and Chittamatra or Yogachara. The Vajrayana is a branch of the Mahayana. MAIN MIND, gtso Stms. A technical term in Buddhist epistemology, referring to the consciousness that generally detects the presence of an object, whereas the different types of mental factors (SimS byung) apprehend, and react to, particular aspects of that object. M AITREYA, t,'ams pa. The "Loving One," one of the eight Close Sons of the Buddha and a tenth-ground Bodhisattva. He resides in the Tushita heaven as GLOSSARY 511

the Buddha's regent and will appear on earth as the next Buddha of this Fortu- nate Kalpa. Stt also Asanga.

MAJOR AND MINOR MARKS OF A BUDDHA, mtshan aang apt bJraa. Thirty-two major physical marks (e.g., the ushn;sha, or crown protuberance) and eighty minor characteristics (e.g., copper-colored fingernails) that are typical of a Buddha as signs of his realization. MANDALA, Skt., ak),;l 'khor. This word has several levels of meaning. At its most basic level, it may be understood simply as a configuration or intelligible unit of space. The mandala of the deity, for example, is the sacred area or palace of the wisdom deity. The mandala of a lama might be considered as the lama's place of residence and the retinue of disciples. The offering mandala is the entire arrangement of an offering, either in real terms or in the imagination, as when a practitioner offers the entire universe. MANJUSHRI, Jam apal abJ,angs. A tenth-ground Bodhisattva, one of the eight Close Sons of the Buddha. He is the personification of the body aspect and the wisdom of all the Buddhas. Stt also Asanga; Nagarjuna. MANTRA, Skt., sngags. Syllables or formulas which, when recited with appropriate visualizations and so on, protect the mind of the practitioner from ordinary perceptions. They are invocations of, and manifestations of, the yidam deity in the form of sound. MANTRAYANA, gsang sngags. Stt Vajrayana. MARA, baua. Stt Demon. MASTER OF ORGYEN. Stt Padmasambhava. MASTERY OVER MAGICAL CREATIONS OF OTHERS, gzhan 'phrul abang byta, Skt. Paranirmita vashavarttina. The sixth and highest heaven of the desire realm, where gods have power over the enjoyments that other gods have created. MAUDGALYAPUTRA. One of the two most important disciples of the Buddha Shakyamuni belonging to the Shravaka Sangha (the other being Shariputra). Maudgalyaputra was endowed with many magical powers. In traditional repre- sentations of Buddha Shakyamuni, he and Shariputra are often depicted stand- ing to right and left of the Master. M ENTAL FACTORS, sems byung. Set Main mind. M ENTAL IMAGE, aon spy';, lit. "meaning-generality." The conceptual image experi- enced by the mental consciousness (rtog shts) and resulting from the activity of the senses. The mental image is the means whereby objects are recognized and conceptually known, a process which is necessarily indirect in the sense that the mental image is not identical with, but only representative of, the thing in question. This representation of the object is of the most general kind and 512 GLOSSARY

functions negatively in being an elimination or exclusion of all that is not the object.

MERIT, bsod nams. Positive energy arising from wholesome action or virtue (dgt ba). There are two kinds of merit: (I) mere "merit tending to happiness" (bsod nams tsam po pa or bsod nams cha mthun) and (2) "merit tending to liberation" (thar pa cha mthun), on the basis of which the mind progresses toward emancipation from samsara. "Stainless merit" (zag mtd dgt ba) is merit tending to liberation, accumulated on the five paths. 5tt also Vinue tending to happiness; Vinue tending to liberation. METHOD, thabs, Skt. upaya. 5tt Skillful means. MIPHAM RINPOCHE, Jam db)'ang rnam rgyal rgya mtsho (1846-1912). One of the greatest scholars of the Nyingma tradition, famed for his immense erudition and versatility. He was a close disciple ofJamyang Khyentse Wangpo and thus associated with the Rime, or nonsectarian movement. Through his learning and realization, he greatly contributed to the reinvigoration o f study and practice in nineteenth-century Tibet. MOUNT MERU, ri rab. The name of an immense cosmic mountain, acting as the axis of the universe and around which are located the four continents. Every universal system has its Mount Meru and four continents. MUDRA, ph)'ag rg)'a. A term with several levels of meaning. Basically, it means a ritual gesture performed with the hands. N AGA, Skt., klu. A powerful creature figuring in the Buddhist and Hindu world- view, closely associated with snakes and endowed with intelligence, magical powers, and great wealth. Nagas are said to live beneath the eanh and to inhabit the watery element; in traditional medicine, they are linked with certain diseases, especially those of the skin. N AGABODHI, klu'i b)'ang chub. A disciple of Nagarjuna, famed for his devotion. N AGARJUNA, klu grub. Great second-century master of the Mahayana, responsible for the dissemination of the Prajnaparamita sutras, which he is said to have recovered from the land of the nagas, where they had been concealed. He was the founder of the Madhyamika system of thought closely associated with the Bodhisattva Manjushri. The Madhyamika teachings of the Profound View are still regarded in Tibetan Buddhism as the summit of all philosophical systems. Stt also Asanga. N ALANDA. The famous monastic university built at the birthplace of Shariputra some distance nonh of Bodhgaya in Bihar and near Rajgir or Vulture Peak where Shakyamuni Buddha expounded the sutras of the Prajnaparamita. The place where many of the greatest masters of the Mahayana lived, studied, and taught, Nalanda had a long and illustrious history. GLOSSARY 513

NATURAL DISCIPLINE, rang bzhin g)'i tshul khrims. Spontaneous discipline arisIng from a total freedom from attachment. The vow of discipline is possible only against the background of desire (the basic expression of which is ego-cling- ing), for it is the principal antidote to it. Yogis who are free from desire (and who therefore have no need to take such a vow) possess a discipline that is entirely natural to them. This is also said to be the case for the inhabitants of Uttarakuru, the northern continent.

NEIGHBORING HELLS, nye 'khor g)'i dmyal ba. Sixteen hells, four in each direction, where suffering is slightly less than in the hot hells around which they are situated. NIHILISM, chad par Ita ba. The extreme materialist view of considering the experi- ences of the physical senses as the only reality and which therefore denies the existence of past and future lives, the karmic principle of cause and effect, and so on. N IN E VEHICLES, theg pa dgu. The traditional classification of the Dharma according to the Nyingma school. The first three are known as the three causal vehicles of the Shravakas, Pratyekabuddhas, and Bodhisattvas. Following these are the three vehicles of the outer tantras, namely, Kriyayoga, Upayoga, and Yogatan- tra. Finally there are the three vehicles of the inner tantras: Mahayoga, Anu- yoga, and Atiyoga. N IRVANA, Skt., m)'ang ngan 'das, lit. the state beyond suffering. As a blanket term, this indicates the various levels of enlightenment attainable in both the Shrava- kayana and Mahayana, namely, the enlightenment of the Shravakas, Pratyeka- buddhas, and Buddhas. It should be noted, however, that when nirvana, or enlightenment, is understood simply as emancipation from samsara (the goal, in other words, of the Hinayana), it is not to be understood as buddhahood. As expounded in the Mahayana, buddhahood utterly transcends both the suf- fering of samsara and the peace of nirvana. Buddhahood is therefore referred to as "nonabiding nirvana" (mi gnas m)'ang 'das), in other words, a state that abides neither in the extreme of samsara nor in that of peace. N ON AFFIRMING NEGATIVE, med dgag. Set Affirming negative. NONANALYTICAL CESSATION or ABSENCE, brtags min gog pa. Refers to the absence of a phenomenon because the conditions for its presence, or perception, are not operative, whether entirely or in pan. This includes, for example, all that is not detected by the senses through being outside the range of the sense organs, or anything else that does not appear due to other disqualifying factors, like the absence of horns on a horse's head which are lacking due to the horse's genetic makeup. A nonanalytical cessation is therefore the absence of a certain object in a specific location. N ONCONCEPTUAL WISDOM, mi rtog pa'iye shes, lit. thought-free wisdom. Primordial knowledge divested of all discursive activity. 514 GLOSSARY

N ONRETURNER, ph)'ir mi 'ong ba. The Shravaka level of realization, the attainment of which implies no funher rebinh in the desire realm. This is not to be confused with the Mahayana level of Nonreturner, which indicates that the Bodhisattva in question will not return to the samsaric state of mind, even though he or she will continue to manifest in the world in order to assist others.

NO-SELF, baag mta. The absence of inherent existence either of the person or of phenomena. N YINGMA SCHOOL, rnying mao Ste Ancient Translation school. OBSCURATIONS, sgrib pa, Skt. avarana. Mental factors which veil the nature of the mind. Stt Two obscurations. ODDIYANA, Skt., 0 rgyan. Also called Orgyen or Urgyen, a region in ancient India corresponding, according to some authorities, to the valley of Swat between Afghanistan and Kashmir. Oddiyana was the birthplace of Guru Padmasam- bhava and Garab Dorje, the first human master of the Dzogchen tradition. ONCE RETURNER, Ian gcig ph)'ir 'ong ba. The Shravaka level of attainment, so called because it implies that one more birth in the desire realm is necessary before liberation is attained. P ADMASAMBHA V A, paa ma 'h)'ung gnas, lit. lotus-born. Referred to by many other titles such as the Master of Orgyen and Guru Rinpoche, Padmasambhava was predicted by the Buddha Shakyamuni as the one who would propagate the teachings of the Vajrayana. Invited to Tibet by King Trisong Detsen in the eighth century, he succeeded in definitively establishing there the Buddhist teachings of sutra and tantra. P ARAMITA, pha rol tu ph)'in pa. A transcendent perfection or virtue, the practice of which leads to buddhahood and which therefore forms the practice of Bodhi- sattvas. There are six paramitas: generosity, ethical discipline, patience, dili- gence, concentration, and wisdom. According to another reckoning there are ten paramitas, these six with the addition of a funher four, regarded as aspects of the wisdom paramita. They are: skillful means, strength, aspiration, and primordial wisdom. PATH, lam, Skt. marga. Progress toward enlightenment is described, in both the Mahayana and H inayana, in terms of the five paths of accumulation, joining, seeing, meditation, and no more learning. The first four constitute the path of learning (slob pa'i lam); the fifth one, the path of no more learning (mi slob pa'i lam), is buddhahood. The paths of seeing and meditation are also termed IInoble path." P ATRUL RINPOCHE, Jigs mta chos kJ'i abang po (1808-1887). A highly accomplished master of the Nyingma tradition, from eastern Tibet. He was famous for his nonsectarian approach and extraordinary simplicity of life. He was a prolific GLOSSARY 515

writer and is well known in the West as the author of Tht Words ojM), PtrjtCt Ttachtr, an introduction to the practice of the Vajrayana.

PEACEFUL AND WRATHFUL DEITIES, zhi khro fha. Meditational deities in peaceful or wrathful forms figuring in the Vajrayana and representing different aspects of the buddha nature. PEAK OF EXISTENCE, sriJ rtst. The highest level in the formless realm and thus the summit of all possible states in the dimension of wordly experience. PELGYI YESHE. A great translator and one of the principal disciples of Guru Padmasambhava, from whom he received the transmission of the Matarah man- dala. PERCEPTION OF MERE APPEARANCE, gn)'is mango Despite the fact that they have realized emptiness on attaining the path of seeing, Bodhisattvas traversing the path of meditation, when not absorbed in meditative equipoise, continue to experience the percept and the perceiving mind as two separate entities. This is the residue of dualistic habit, which continues but gradually fades away, until full enlightenment is attained, even though, by vinue of their realization, the Bodhisattvas in question have long abandoned any belief in the reality of the phenomena that continue to appear to them. PERFECT JOY, rab tu dga' ba. The first of the bodhisattva grounds, corresponding to the path of seeing. PERSONAL SELF, gang zag gi bdag. Innate and conceptual apprehension of an inher- ently existent "I"; the ego. It is a mere assumption or belief in something that in fact has no existence. PHENOMENAL SELF, chos k)'i bdag. Innate and conceptual apprehension of phenom- ena as inherently existent. PITAKA, Skt., snod, lit. basket. Collection of scriptures. PRAJNAPARAMITA, Skt., shts rab kyi pha rol tu ph)'in pa. (I) The paramita oftranscen- dent wisdom, the knowledge o f emptiness; (2) the collection o f sutras belong- ing to the second turning of the Dharma wheel and expounding the doctrine of shunyata, the emptiness of phenomena. PRAKRITI, Skt., gtso boo The primal substance; one of the two great principles that account for the manifested universe according to the Hindu Samkhya philosophy. Prakriti comprises the three gunas, or universal qualities, which, when disturbed, give rise to the phenomenal appearances of the world. Stt Purusha. PRASANGIKA, Skt., thai g,'ur. Subdivision of the Madhyamika school of philoso- phy characterized by the use of prasanga, or consequence (i.e., reduction to absurdity), as the best method of dealing with false assenions in order to establish emptiness beyond the reach of conceptual construction. This particu- 516 GLOSSARY

lar approach was first explicitly formulated by Buddhapalita and later taken up and confirmed by Chandrakirti.

PRATIMOKSHA, Skt., so sor thar pa, lit. individual liberation. This term is used to refer to the eight kinds of Buddhist ordination, together with their connected vows and disciplines. These are: the vows of upavasa, or twenty-four-hour discipline; male and female upasaka (dgt bm)'tn), or lay practitioner; male and female shramanera (dgt tshul), or aspirant for a full ordination; shiksamana (dgt slob ma), or female novice; and male and female bhikshu (dgt slong), or fully ordained monks and nuns. Since these vows are specifically motivated by the determination to free oneself from samsara, they are fundamental to the Hina- yana. They are, however, widely taken and practiced in Mahayana Buddhism. The system of Pratimoksha is sometimes referred to as the "seven vows," in which case the temporary vow of upavasa is omitted. PRATYEKABUDDHA, Skt., rang sangs rgyas. A "Solitary Buddha," one who, without relying on a teacher, attains the cessation of suffering by meditating on the twelve links of dependent arising. Pratyekabuddhas realize the emptiness of the person and go halfway to realizing the emptiness of phenomena. In other words, they realize the emptiness of perceived phenomena-but not that of the subject, the perceiving mind. PRETA, Skt., yi dvags. Famished spirits, one of the six classes of beings in samsara. PRETERNATURAL KNOWLEDGE, mngon shts. A kind of clairvoyance. There are six kinds of preternatural knowledge. The first five (knowledge of the past lives, etc.) can occur even in the experience of ordinary beings. The sixth one, the knowledge of the total elimination of obscurations, is the exclusive preserve of a Buddha. PROFOUND VIEW. Stt Tradition of the Profound View. PURE LAND, zhing khams. Stt Buddhafield. PURE PERCEPTION, dag mango The perception of the world as the pure display of the kayas and wisdoms, in other words, as a buddhafield. Tending in this same direction is the contrived pure perception of a practitioner who endeavors to view everything purely, while still on the conceptual level. PURITY AND EQUALITY, dag mn)'am chm po. A central principle of the Vajrayana. It is the view of the Mahayoga expounded in the tantra Sg)'U 'phrul dra ba (Fantas- magorical Net). All appearances, in their purity, are the mandala of the kayas and wisdoms. This comprises the superior relative truth. Being pure, they are all equal, wisdom and emptiness united. This is superior absolute truth. The "pure" status of the appearing mode and the "equal" status of the absolute mode of being are present indivisibly in every phenomenon. This is referred to as the great Dharmakaya. GLOSSARY 517

PURUSHA, Skt., shts rig gi sk),tS bu. According to the Hindu Samkhya philosophy, the conscious Self, real and eternal, the counterpart of prakriti, the primal substance. Stt also Prakriti.

QUALITIES OF ELIMINATION AND REALIZATION, spangs rtogs kyi )'on tan. Spiritual qualities (e.g., the realization of the five kinds of enlightened vision) that shine fonh in proponion as the emotional and cognitive veils are removed from the mind's nature. RADIANT CLARITY, 'od gsaL Stt Luminosity. RAHU, sgra gcan. A mythical demon believed to cause eclipses by devouring the sun and moon. REFUGE, sk;'abs ),ul. The object in which one takes refuge; sk;'abs gro, the practice of taking refuge. REFUGE TREE. The field of refuge, the Three Jewels, and so forth, visualized as seated in the center and on the four great branches of a tree, for the purposes of taking refuge. Stt also Field of merit. RELATIVE TRUTH, kun rdzob bdtn pa, lit. all-concealing truth. This refers to phe- nomena in the ordinary sense, which, on the level of ordinary experience, are perceived as real and separate from the mind and which thus conceal their true nature. R ESULTANT VEHICLE, 'bras bu'i thtg pa. Stt Expository vehicle of causality. RINCHEN ZANGPO, rin chtn bzang po. A great translator (958-1051) and inaugurator of the second phase of translation of Sanskrit texts into Tibetan, so-called the New Translation period. RISHI, Skt., drang srong. Name given to the great sages of Indian mythology, en- dowed with great longevity and magical powers, who were instrumental in the creation, or reception, of the Vedas. In the Buddhist context, this word is usually translated as sage, hermit, or saint. RONGZOM CHOKYI ZANGPO, rong zom chos k)'i bzang po. Also known as Rongzom Pandita, an eleventh-century scholar and commentator of the Nyingma school. R UP AKA YA, Skt., gzugs sku. Stt Five Bodies. SADHANA, Skt., sgrub thabs. Method of accomplishment. A tantric meditative prac- tice involving the visualization of deities and the recitation of mantra. SAGARAMEGHA, rg)'a mtsho sprin. A master belonging to the Lower school of Sva- tantrika Madhyamika and commentator on the Bodhisattva Grounds by Asanga. S AKY AP ANDITA, kun dga' rgyal mtshan (1182-1251). Regarded as an emanation of the Bodhisattva Manjushri, one of the most illustrious masters in the history of Tibetan Buddhism. Belonging to the Sakya school, he was a great polymath 518 GLOSSARY

and Sanskritist. His work on the three types of vow, Tht Thrtt Vows D;st;ngu;shta, was and is extremely influential.

SAMADHI, Skt., bsam gtan. Meditative absorption o f different degrees. SAMANTABHADRA, kun tu bzang po. (I) Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, one o f the eight Close Sons of the Buddha, renowned for his offerings emanated through the power of his concentration; (2) the primordial Buddha who has never fallen into delusion, the symbol of awareness, the ever-present pure and luminous nature of the mind. SAMAVA, Skt., aam tshig. The sacramental bond and commitment in the Vajrayana established between the master and the disciples on whom empowerment is conferred. The samaya bond exists also between the disciples of the same master and between disciples and their practice. SAMBHOGAKA YA, Skt., longs spyoa razogs pa'; sku. Stt Five Bodies. SAMSARA, Skt., 'khor ba. The wheel or round of existence; the state of being unenlightened in which the mind, enslaved by the three poisons of desire, anger, and ignorance, evolves uncontrolled from one state to another, passing through an endless stream of psychophysical experiences all of which are char- acterized by suffering. Stt also World of desire. SANGHA, Skt., agt 'aun. The community of Buddhist practitioners, whether monas- tic or lay. The term "Noble Sangha" refers to those members of the Buddhist community who have attained the path of seeing and beyond. SARAHA. Indian yogi of high accomplishment, author of three cycles of aohas, or songs of realization. SAUTRANTIKA, Skt., mao sat pa. One of the four systems of Buddhist tenets. To- gether with the Vaibhashika school, the Sautrantika is considered as belonging to the Hinayana. The Sautrantika is remarkable for its elaborate psychology and logic and is widely studied and utilized in Tibetan Buddhism. SECRET MANTRA, gsang sngags. Stt Vajrayana. SEVEN-BRANCH PRA YER, yan lag baun. A type of prayer (of which there are innu- merable examples) comprising the seven elements of homage and refuge, offer- ing, confession, rejoicing in the virtues of others, the request for teachings, the supplication that the enlightened beings should not pass into nirvana, and the dedication of merit. SEVEN IMPURE GROUNDS, ma aag pa' ; sa baun. Stt Ground. SEVEN-POINT POSTURE OF V AIROCHANA, rnam snang chos baun. The ideal physical posture for meditation: legs crossed in the vajra posture, back straight, hands in the gesture of meditation, eyes gazing along the line of the nose, chin slightly tucked in, shoulders well apart and even, and the tip of the tongue touching the palate. GLOSSARY 519

SEVEN SUBLIME RICHES, 'phags pa'i nor baun. Faith, discipline, generosity, learning, sense of shame, consideration of others, and wisdom.

SEVEN TREASURES, mazoa baun. The most famous work of the Omniscient Long- chenpa, consisting of seven treatises expounding the entire Buddhist path up to, and stressing, the Great Perfection (which is here discussed in a scholarly manner, "according to the great way of the panditas"). SHAKYA SHRI. A Kashmiri master, the last abbot of Vikramashila, who visited Tibet in the early thirteenth century. He was the source of the lineage of monastic ordination called the Middle Vinaya lineage (bar 'aul) of the Ngor branch of the Sakya school. SHAKYAMUNI. Historical Buddha Gautama, who attained full enlightenment be- neath the Bodhi tree in Bodhgaya, circa 500 B.C.E. SHAMATHA, Skt., zhi gnas. Essentially a concentration in which the mind remains unmoving on an object of focus. It is a state of calm abiding which though of great importance is itself incapable of overcoming ignorance and the concep- tion of a self. Stt also Vipashyana. SHANTARAKSHITA, zhi ba mtsho. Also known as Khenpo Bodhisattva. Associated with the monastic university ofNalanda, Shantarakshita was the great exponent of the upper school of the Yogachara Svatantrika Madhyamika. He visited Tibet in the eighth century at the invitation of King Trisong Detsen and ordained the first seven Tibetan monks. He was thus the source ofthe so-called smaa 'aul, the Lowland or Eastern lineage of monastic ordination followed by Nyingmapas and many Gelugpas. Among the previous Indian holders of the lineage of Shantarakshita were Shariputra, Rahula (sgra gcan 'azin, another name for Saraha), and Nagarjuna. It was at the suggestion of Shantarakshita that the king invited Guru Rinpoche to Tibet. SHANTIDEVA, zhi ba lha. A member of Nalanda university and the celebrated au- thor of the Boah;charyavatara (Tht Way' of tht Boahisattva). He upheld the view of the Prasangika Madhyamika in the tradition of Chandrakirti. Shantideva was also the author ofthe Shikshasamuccha),a, a compendium ofcitations on discipline, which forms a valuable collection of texts that have otherwise been lost. SHARIPUTRA. One of the two main Shravaka disciples of the Buddha Shakyamuni, noted for his wisdom. Stt also Maudgalyaputra. SHASTRA, Skt., bstan bcos. A commentary on the words of the Buddha. SHRAMANERA, agt tshuL The first stage in the monastic ordination implying the observance of cenain precepts. Stt note 160. SHRAVAKA, Skt., n)'an thos. One who hears the teachings of the Buddha, practices them, and transmits them to others with a view to his or her personal liberation from samsara, rather than the perfect enlightenment of buddhahood. Shravakas 520 GLOSSAR Y

are practitioners of the Root Vehicle, or Hinayana, which is often for that reason called the Shravakayana.

SHRIGUPTA, dpal sbas. A master of the lower school of the Svatantrika Madhya- mika. SHURA, SHURACHARYA, dpa' boo Set Ashvaghosha. SIDDHA, Skt., grub thob. One who has gained siddhi or accomplishment through the practice of the Vajrayana. SIDDHI, dngos grub. Set Accomplishment. SIX REALMS OF EXISTENCE, gro drug. Six modes of existence produced by specific karmas and apprehended as real. They are all equal in being merely perceptions of the deluded mind and lacking inherent existence. In ascending order they are the realms of hell, produced by hatred; pretas, brought about by extreme miserliness; of animals, provoked by stupidity; of humans, produced by desire; of asuras, by intense envy; and of gods, due to actions concomitant with pride. SKANDHAS, Skt., phung po, lit. heap or aggregate. The five skandhas are the compo- nent elements of form, feeling, perception, conditioning factors, and conscious- ness. They are the elements into which the person may be analyzed without residue. When they appear together, the illusion of self is produced in the ignorant mind. SKILLFUL MEANS, thabs, Skt. upaya. This refers to compassion, that is, the counter- part of the wisdom of emptiness. By extension, it refers to all kinds of action and training performed with the attitude of bodhichitta. STHIRAMATI, blo gros brtan pa (510-570 C.E.). A follower of Vasubandhu. It is said that he was the rebirth of a pigeon that had spent its life nesting near Vasu- bhandu's dwelling place, with the result that it heard the master's recitation of scripture so frequently that it was reborn as a human being and became one of his greatest disciples. STUPA, Skt., mchod rttn, lit. support of offering. Symbolic representation of the Buddha's enlightenment. Stupas, perhaps the most typical of Buddhist monu- ments, are to be found in a variety of forms all over the Buddhist world. They often contain the relics o f enlightened beings and are objects o f great reverence. SUBTLE CHANNELS, rtsa, Skt. nadi. The psychophysical channels located in the body, which act as the paths for the subtle wind energies that transpon the essences. There are three main channels and thousands of subsidiary ones. The system of channels, energies, and essences is the basis for yogic practice. SUGATA, Skt., bdt bar gshtgs pa, lit. "One who has gone to, and proceeds in, bliss." An epithet of the Buddhas. SUGATAGARBHA, Skt., bdt gshtgs sn)'ing po. The essence of buddhahood, the lumi- nous and empty nature of the mind. GLOSSARY 521

SUKHAVATI, Skt., bat ba can, lit. the Blissful. The name of the "Western Paradise," the pure land of the Buddha Amitabha.

SUR, BURNT OFFERING, gsur. Food burnt on coals and offered in charity to spirits who are able to consume only the smell of burnt food. SUTRA, Skt., mao. A Buddhist scripture, a transcribed discourse of the Buddha. There are Hinayana sutras and Mahayana sutras (as distinct from the tantras). Of the Mahayana sutras, some are categorized as being of expedient meaning (arang aon) and their purpose, as the Akshayamatiniratsha-sutra explains, is to lead disciples onto the path. Other Mahayana sutras are classified as being of defin- itive meaning (ngts aon) and introduce the hearers directly to the Buddha's wisdom. SUTRAYANA. Stt Mahayana. SVATANTRIKA, Skt., rang rgyua pa. "Autonomists," a subdivision of the Madhya- mika school of tenets, distinguished from the Prasangika. Inaugurated by Bha- vaviveka (fifth century C.E.), the Svatantrika represents an approach to the relative and absolute truth in which positive reasoning, or "autonomous" syllo- gisms, are employed, together with arguments and examples, in order to pro- duce a (conceptual) understanding of emptiness in the mind of the opponent and to refute the true existence of phenomena. It is distinguished from the Prasangika approach, which confines itself exclusively to consequences or re- ductio ad absurdum arguments. T ANTRA, Skt., rgyua, lit. continuum. The texts of Vajrayana Buddhism expound- ing the natural purity of the mind. The Nyingma school classifies the tantras into outer tantras (Kriya, Upa, and Yoga) and inner tantras (Mahayoga, Anu- yoga, and Atiyoga). The Sarma, or New Translation, tradition uses another method, dividing the tantras into four classes: Kriya, Upa, Yogatantra, and Anuttaratantra. T ATHAGATA, Skt., at bzhin gshtgs pa, lit. "One who has gone thus." An epithet of the Buddhas. T ATHAGATAGARBHA, at gshtgs sn)'ing po. Stt Sugatagarbha. T EN DIRECTIONS, phyogs bcu. The four cardinal and four intermediary directions, together with the zenith and nadir. T ERMA, gttr rna. Treasures. These are teachings and sacred objects concealed mainly by Guru Padmasambhava, to be revealed later, at a time when they would be more beneficial for the world and its inhabitants. Guru Rinpoche concealed such treasures in the deepest recesses of the minds of his disciples, who were themselves practitioners of great accomplishment. In addition, al- though not in every case, the bestowal of these treasure teachings was accompa- nied by the creation of certain physical objects, often scrolls of yellow paper carrying the symbolic letters of the dakinis, or other writing (sometimes a few 522 GLOSSARY

words, sometimes entire texts). These texts, together with other items, were entrusted for protection to the dakinis or Dharma protectors and were con- cealed, not in the ordinary sense, but within the very nature of the elements. According to the inconceivable workings of interdependence, when the appro- priate historical period arrives, the disciples to whom a specific teaching was bestowed appear in the world and proceed to unfold the treasure teachings. In this they are often prompted by the discovery of the items just referred to, or else they spontaneously recollect the teaching received many centuries before from the mouth of the guru. The collection of terma is enormous and forms one of the main sources of teaching and practice of the Nyingma school.

THIRTY-SEVEN ELEMENTS LEADING TO ENLIGHTENMENT, byang chub )'an lag so bdun. A system of thitty-seven factors practiced on the paths of accumulation, joining, seeing, and meditation, by means of which progress is made toward enlightenment. THIRTY-THREE, sum bcu rtsa gsum, Skt. Trayastrimsha. The second divine sphere of the desire realm, situated on the summit of Mount Meru, presided over by thitty-three gods of whom Indra is the chief. THREE COLLECTIONS, sde snod gsum. See Tripitaka. THREE DIMENSIONS OF EXISTENCE, sa gsum. The world of humans and animals inhabiting the eatth's surface, the realm of the gods and spirits in the heavens above, and the kingdom of the nagas and so on in the subterranean regions. THREE DOORS OF PERFECT LIBERATION, rnam thar sgo gsum. A central notion of the Mahayana teachings of the second turning of the Dharma wheel. They are a means of approach to ultimate reality through an understanding of three qualities implicit in all phenomena. The three doors are: (I) all phenomena are empty; (2) they are beyond all attributes; and (3) they are beyond all aspiration or expectation. THREE JEWELS, dkon mchog gsum. Skt. triratna. The Triple Gem of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; the object of Buddhist refuge. THREE KA YAS, sku gsum. See Five Bodies. THREE KINDS OF WISDOM. The wisdom resulting from hearing (thos pa'i shes rab), reflecting on (bsam pa'i shes rab), and meditating on the teachings (sgom pa'i shes rab). THREE NATURES, rang bzhin gsum. A threefold categorization of phenomena con- sisting of the imputed reality, dependent reality, and actual reality, as presented in the sutras of the third turning of the wheel of Dharma. The interpretation of this threefold distinction varies according to the philosophical outlook of the commentator. THREE POISONS, dug gsum. The three main afflictions of attachment, hatred, and ignorance. See Afflictions. GLOSSARY 523

THREE PURE GROUNDS, aag pa' i sa gsum. Set Ground.

THREE REALITIES. Set Three natures. THREE SPHERES, 'khor 10gsum, lit. three wheels. Conceptions of the inherent exis- tence of the object, the subject, and the action itself. THREE-THOUSANDFOLD UNIVERSE, stong gsum. A billionfold cosmic system of universes, each of which comprises a Mount Meru and four cosmic continents. THREE TRAININGS, bslabs pa gsum. Trainings in ethical discipline (tshul khrims), con- centration (ting nge 'azin), and wisdom (shes rab). The three trainings form the basis of the Buddhist path. THREE TURNINGS OF THE DHARMA WHEEL, ,hos k)'i 'khor 10 gsum. The Buddha Shakyamuni gave teachings on three different levels, referred to as the three turnings of the Dharma wheel. On the first occasion at Sarnath, he expounded the doctrine of the four noble truths. Later, at Vulture Peak, he set forth the doctrine of emptiness subsequently recorded in the Prajnaparamita sutras. Fi- nally, on various occasions, he gave teachings on the Tathagatagarbha, the bud- dha nature, such as are recorded in the Sanahinirmo,hana and other sutras. THREE TYPES OF BEINGS, sk)'es bu gsum. (I) those who aspire to happiness in the higher states of samsaric existence; (2) those who aspire to liberation from samsara altogether; and (3) those who aspire to buddhahood for the sake of all beings. THREE TYPES OF SUFFERING, saug bsngalgsum. (I) the suffering of suffering-pain as such; (2) the suffering of change-the fact that happiness is impermanent and liable to turn into its opposite; and (3) all-pervading suffering in the making-the fact that all actions grounded in the ignorance of the true nature of things will, sooner or later, bring fonh suffering. THREE VEHICLES, theg pa gsum. The vehicles of Shravakas, Pratyekabuddhas, and Bodhisattvas. According to the Hinayana point of view, it is asserted that these three vehicles are final paths and correspond to three definite types of beings. By contrast, the Mahayana teaches that the three vehicles correspond to what is merely a temporary orientation and that in the last analysis there is only one vehicle leading to buddhahood. This means that, after accomplishing the fruit of their path, which is not, as they believe, final, the Shravakas and Pratyeka- buddhas are at length roused from the peace of their nirvana and enter the Mahayana. They then follow the bodhisattva path and attain buddhahood. THREE VOWS, saom gsum. The vows and disciplines of the Hinayana, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. TORMA, gtor mao A ritual object of varying shape and composed of a variety of substances. Depending on the context, the torma is considered as an offering, a symbolic representation of a yidam deity, a vehicle of blessings, or even a weapon for dispelling obstacles. 524 GLOSSARY

TORMENT UNSURPASSED, mnar mea, Skt. avici. The lowest of the hot hells, ac- cording to Buddhist teaching, characterized by the most intense and protracted form of suffering.

TRADITION OF THE PROFOUND VIEW, Ita ba zab mo'i lugs. The sutras of the second turning of the Dharma wheel, setting forth the profound view of emptiness, were compiled by Manjushri and commented upon by Nagarjuna. In his six treatises on reasoning, the latter established that all phenomena are empty by their nature (rang stong), and in his Stotras and so on (commenting upon the meaning of the sutras of the third turning of the wheel), he spoke of "empti- ness of other" (gzhan stong), namely, that the ultimate nature of the mind is empty of adventitious stains and endowed with inalienable qualities. Nagarjuna is the founder of the tradition of the Profound View. This was subsequently upheld and commented upon by Aryadeva, Buddhapalita, Bhavaviveka, and Chandrakirti, while masters such as Shantideva and Jetari propagated the prac- tice of bodhichitta according to the same tradition. With regard to the ritual for taking the bodhichitta vow and its ensuing practice, the Nyingmapas mostly follow the tradition of Nagarjuna. With regard to their view, however, they follow both the tradition of the Profound View and the tradition of Vast Activities taught by Asanga. TRADITION OF VAST ACTIVITIES, sPJ10a pa rg)'a ,he ba'i lugs. The Bodhisattva Mai- treya compiled the sutras of the third turning of the wheel, composed the five treatises named after him (which establish the view of "emptiness of other," gzhan stong), and taught them to Asanga. Asanga further wrote Five Treatises on the Grounas (sa ae lnga) and other works, while his brother Vasubandhu, after em- bracing the Mahayana, composed eight prakaranas, or explanatory texts. These are the source of the tradition of Vast Activities, which expounds the teaching on the buddha nature and the Bodhisattva bhumis, and so on. This tradition was upheld and propagated by such masters as Dignaga, Dharmakirti, and Chandragomin. The ritual of the vow, and practice of bodhichitta, according to this tradition was introduced to Tibet by Atisha. TRANSCENDENT PERFECTION. Set Paramita. TRIPITAKA, Sat moa gsum. The Three Collections of the words of the Buddha (Vinaya, Sutra, and Abhidharma). They were compiled at the first council held shortly after the parinirvana of the Lord Buddha in the Nyagrodha cave at Rajagriha under the aegis of King Ajatashatru. Ananda recited from memory all the Buddha's sutric teachings, Kashyapa all his metaphysical teachings, and Upali all the rules of ethical discipline. The collection was supplemented and completed at the third council held at the behest of King Kanishka. TRUE EXISTENCE, yoa pa. According to Buddhist teaching, true existence implies characteristics, such as indivisibility, immutability, and so on. TUSHITA, aga' /Jan. The Joyous Realm, the fourth divine sphere of the desire realm, in which Buddha Shakyamuni abode before appearing in our world. GLOSSARY 525

Two ACCUMULATIONS, tshogsgn)'is. (I) The accumulation of merit performed on the basis of the discursive mind (bsoJ nams kyi tshogs), in other words, the positive energy arising from wholesome action and (2) the accumulation of wisdom beyond discursive thought ()'e shes kyi tshogs) arising from the understanding that in all experience, subject, object, and action are devoid of inherent existence.

T w o OBSCURATIONS, sgrib gn)'is. (I) Emotional obscurations (n),on sgrib) such as the afflictions of attachment and anger and (2) cognitive obscuration (shes sgrib), that is, dualistic conceptual thinking, which prevents omniscience. These two obscurations are like veils that cover the ultimate nature of the mind and phenomena. They are also respectively referred to as attachment and impedi- ment (chags thogs). Two TRUTHS, bJengn)'is. The relative truth and absolute truth, the interpretation of which is pivotal in the establishment of the various system of Buddhist tenets. See Relative truth; Absolute truth. Two VEILS, sgribgnyis. Set Two obscurations. TWOFOLD AIM, Jon gnyis. (I) Buddhahood for oneself and (2) the temporary and ultimate fulfillment of other beings. TWOFOLD KNowLEDGE. (I) The knowledge of the nature of things (ji Ita ba'i mkh),en pa) and (2) the knowledge of all things in their multiplicity (ji sn)'eJ pa'i mkh)'en pa), both of which are possessed by enlightened beings. TWOFOLD PURITY, Jag pa gn)'is. (I) The original natural purity of the mind, present in the minds of all sentient beings (rang bzhin )'e Jag), and (2) the purity from all adventitious stains (glo bur 'phral Jag), which is the result of the path and is the preserve of Buddhas only. ULTIMATE EXCELLENCE, nges ltgs. The state of buddhahood. ULTIMATE OR 0 EFINITIV E MEANING, nges Jon. Teachings which directly express the way things are from the point of view of realized beings. ULTIMATE REALITY, chos n),M. Thatness, the nature of each and every phenome- non, emptiness beyond all conceptual constructions. ULTIMATE TRUTH. Set Absolute truth. UNCOMPOUNDED PHENOMENON, 'Jus ma b;'as. A phenomenon that is devoid of origin, abiding, and cessation and is therefore totally immutable, for example, space and nirvana. The hinayana and the mahayana tenet systems have different interpretations of this term. U NW AVERING ACTION, mi g-)'o ba'i las. A positive action, such as a profound state of meditation devoid of the motivation of bodhichitta. The characteristic fea- ture of this kind of action is that it invariably produces rebirth in the form or formless realms of samsara. Other actions lack this unwavering or invariable 526 GLOSSARY

quality in the sense that, depending on circumstances, their result may ripen in a realm different from the one normally to be expected.

U PASAKA, Skt., agt bsn)'tn. A Buddhist lay practitioner who has taken some or all of the precepts of the upasaka vow. U PAVASA, Skt., bsn)'tn gnas. The twenty-four-hour pratimoksha vow, consisting of eight precepts and taken by laypeople. U SHNISHA, gtsug gtor. The crown protuberance, one of the principal physical signs of complete buddhahood. UTTARAKURU, sgra mi sn)'an. The northern cosmic continent, where beings possess natural discipline. V AIBHASHIKA, Skt., byt brag smra ba. The first of the hinayana tenet systems, in which the indivisible particle of matter and the indivisible instant of conscious- ness are regarded as ultimate truth. V AIROCHANA, rnam par snang mazaa. The Dhyani Buddha of the Tathagata family corresponding to the aggregate of form. V AJRA, rao rjt. Diamond or vajra weapon, a symbol of indestructibility, also used to represent skillful means or compassion. The vajra or dorje is frequently employed in tantric rituals in conjunction with a bell (aril bu), which in tum symbolizes the wisdom of emptiness. V AJRA KINDRED, rao rjt spun. Spiritual brothers and sisters or fellow practitioners in the Vajrayana. The closest kinship exists between those disciples who receive the empowerment in the same mandala from the same teacher. V AJRAPANI, Skt., ph)'ag na rao rjt. A great Bodhisattva, one of the eight Close Sons. He personifies the power and the Mind of all the Buddhas. V AJRAYANA, Skt., rao rjt thtg pa. The corpus of teachings and practices based on the tantras, scriptures that discourse upon the primordial purity of the mind. Stt also Expository vehicle of causality. V AST ACTIVITIES. Stt Tradition of Vast Activities. V ASUBANDHU, abyig gnytn (280-360 C.E.). The only acharya who enjoys equal prestige as an exponent of both the Hinayana and the Mahayana. During his Sarvastivadin phase he composed the AbhidharmakoshabhaS),a, which is the most systematic and complete exposition of the Abhidharma and marks the summit of hinayana scholarship. Later in life, through his own inner development and under the influence of his elder brother Asanga, Vasubandhu adopted the mahayana yogachara view and composed many works of which the Trimsikavi- jnapti-karika (Thirf)' Stanzas on tht Mina) is the most outstanding. VEHICLE, thtg pa, Skt. yana. A system of teachings providing the means for travel- ing the path to enlightenment. There are three main vehicles: Shravakayana, Pratyekabuddhayana, and Bodhisattvayana. GLOSSAR Y 527

V IDEHA, Ius 'phags po. Set Four continents.

V IDYADHARA, Skt., rig 'az;n, lit. awareness holder or knowledge holder. A being of high attainment in the Vajrayana. According to the Nyingma tradition, there are four levels of Vidyadhara corresponding to the ten (sometimes eleven) levds of realization of the Sutrayana. They are: (I) the Vidyadhara with corpo- ral residue (rnam sm;n rig 'az;n); (2) the Vidyadhara with power over life (tshe abang rig 'az;n); (3) the Mahamudra Vidyadhara (phyag chen rig 'az;n); and (4) the Vidyadhara of spontaneous presence (Ihun grub rig 'Jz;n). V IKRAMASHILA, Skt., rnam gnon ngang tshul. An ancient Indian monastic university founded in the eighth century and second only to Nalanda in imponance. V IMALAMITRA, ar; mea bshes gn)'tn. One of the greatest masters and scholars of Indian Buddhism. He went to Tibet in the ninth century, where he taught and translated numerous Sanskrit texts. He was one of the principal sources, to- gether with Guru Padmasambhava, of the Dzogchen teachings in Tibet. VIMUKTASENA, sgroi sae. A predecessor of Shantarakshita as an exponent of the upper school of the Svatantrika, but not considered its founder. V IN AYA, Skt., 'aul ba. The name of the Buddhist ethical teachings in general and of the code of monastic discipline in panicular. VIPASHYANA, Skt., Ihag mthong, lit. enlarged vision or profound insight. Vipashyana is essentially the primordial wisdom that overcomes the ignorant belief in the existence of the sdf and realizes ultimate reality. VIRTUE TENDING TO HAPPINESS, bsoa nams cha mthun. All posItive actions per- formed on the basis of a belief in a truly existent agent, act, and object, and which are productive of samsaric happiness. VIRTUE TENDING TO LIBERATION, thar pa cha mthun. The virtue arising from all trainings, meditations, and positive action, accompanied by the determination to free oneself from samsara and combined with the wisdom that realizes the absence of inherent existence. WATER TORMA, chugtor. An offering made with water, milk, and grains. WHEEL OF DHARMA, chos k)'; 'khor 10. The symbol of the Buddha's teachings. Set also Three turnings of the Dharma wheel. WHEEL OF INEXHAUSTIBLE ORNAMENTS, zaa m; shes pa'; rg)'an g)'; 'khor 10. The enlightened body, speech, mind, qualities, and activities of the Buddhas. WIND ENERGY, rlung, Skt. prana. A psychophysical component that circulates in the subtle channels ofthe body and acts as the support ofthe mind. In ordinary beings the wind energy is impure. It is called karmic energy (las ky; rlung) because it is contaminated by karma. When purified, however, it becomes wisdom energy (ye shes k)'; rlung). 528 GLOSSARY

WISDOM. (I) ShtS rab, Skt. prajna, the ability to discern correctly; the understanding of emptiness. (2) yt shts, Skt. jnana, the primordial and nondual knowing aspect of the nature of the mind.

WISH-FULFILLING JEWEL, ),M bzh;n nor bu, Skt. chintamani. A fabulous jewel found in the realms of the gods or nagas which fulfills all wishes. W ISH-FULFILLING TREE, dpag bsam g)'; sh;ng. A magical tree which has its roots in the asura realm but bears its fruit in the divine sphere of the Thirty-three. WORLD OF DESIRE, 'dod khams. A general term referring to the six samsaric realms. Stt also Desire realm. Y AMA, gsh;n rjt. The Lord of Death, a metaphorical personification of death. YIDAM, )'; dam. A tantric deity, in male or female form, representing different aspects of enlightenment. Yidams may be peaceful or wrathful and are medi- tated upon according to the nature and needs of the individual practitioner. YOGA, Skt., mal 'bJ'or, lit. joining ('byor) or union with the natural state of the mind (rnal ma). A term commonly used to refer to spiritual practice. YOGACHARA. Stt Chittamatrins. ZUR. Teachers of Zur family lineage. Many Nyingmapa teachers of the tenth to twelfth centuries belonged to this clan. They were renowned for both their knowledge and their attainments.